ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON 
STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 


jTZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ-ZZZZZZZZZZZZ^j 
g  Published  by  ^ 

The    Chemical    Publishing    Co. 

Easton,  Penna. 

i 

Publishers  of  Scientific  Books 

|l  m 

g     Engineering  Chemistry  Portland  Cement     g 

g     Agricultural  Chemistry  Qualitative  Analysis     |j 

g     Household  Chemistry  Chemists*  Pocket  Manual     g 

Metallurgy,  Etc. 


Elementary  Treatise 


on 


Stock  Feeds  and  Feeding 

By 
JAMES  EDWARD  HALLIGAN 

CHEMIST  IN  CHARGE,  LOUISIANA  STATE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


E ASTON.  PA. 

THE    CHEMICAL    PUBLISHING   CO. 
1911 


LONDON,    ENGLAND': 
WILLIAMS  &   NORGATE 

14    HENRIETTA    STREET,    COVENT    GARDEN,   W.   C. 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY  EDWARD  HART. 


PREFACE. 

This  book  has  been  written  to  furnish  the  readers  with  a 
knowledge  of  stock  feeds,  the  principles  of  feeding  and  the  care 
of  farm  animals.  It  is  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  used  as  a 
text-book,  or  for  farmers,  or  for  those  interested  in  commercial 
feeds. 

Many  of  the  American  feeders  waste  a  great  deal  of  money 
through  unwise  selection  of  feeds;  many  do  not  properly  supply 
the  needs  of  their  live  stock;  and  many  could  improve  their 
systems  of  feeding.  This  little  book  should  acquaint  the  readers 
with  suggestions  along  these  lines,  serve  to  solve  many  problems 
which  confront  the  farmer  and  perhaps  be  a  means  of  increas- 
ing his  profits.  The  subject  matter  has  been  written  in  as  simple 
and  practical  a  way  as  possible  so  as  to  be  within  reach  of  all 
interested  in  the  subject. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  little  volume  will  fill  a  useful  place 
in  the  libraries  of  farmers  and  students  of  animal  feeding. 

Acknowledgments. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Dr.  W.  H.  Dalrymple,  Department 
of  Veterinary  Science  and  to  Prof.  E.  L.  Jordan,  Department 
of  Animal  Husbandry,  of  the  Louisiana  State  University,  for 
their  many  valuable  suggestions.  Prof.  G.  L.  Tiebout,  of  the 
Louisiana  State  University  very  kindly  helped  in  printing  some 
of  the  photographs. 

The  illustrations  have  been  secured  from  the  Louisiana  Ex- 
periment Station  and  credit  is  given  in  the  text  for  illustrations 
secured  from  other  sources. 

Baton  Rouge,  La. 

February   15,   1911.  J.  E.  Halligan. 


302059 


INTRODUCTION. 

According  to  the  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  in  the  Yearbook  of  1908 :  "The  farmer  who 
has  averaged  hardly  twenty  cents  a  pound  for  the  butter  that 
he  has  sold,  between  three  and  four  cents  a  quart  for  his  milk, 
and  about  one  and  a  half  cents  for  each  egg,  and  even  to  the 
consumer  who  has  paid  prices  much  above  these,  it  is  a  striking 
fact  that  the  value  of  the  farm  products  of  the  dairy  cow  are 
getting  closer  and  closer  to  $800,000,000;  Poultry  and  eggs 
produced  on  the  farms  of  the  United  States  are  worth  as  much 
as  the  cotton  crop,  seed  included,  or  the  hay  crop  or  the  wheat 
crop." 

Armsby  says :  "It  is  estimated  by  competent  authority  that 
over  45  per  cent,  of  the  food  consumption  of  the  better  classes  in 
the  United  States  consists  of  animal  products.  Taking  into 
account  the  relatively  higher  prices  of  these  materials  it  seems 
safe  to  estimate  that  fully  half  the  amount  spent  for  food  by  the 
average  well-to-do  family  goes  for  the  purchase  of  meat,  eggs 
and  dairy  products." 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  on  farm  animals  in  the 
United  States.1 


Kind  of  stock 

Number  on  farms 
in  the  United  States 
January  i,  1909 

Average  price 
per  head 
January  i,  1909 

Farm  Value 
January  i,  1909 

20  640  ooo 

$i   Q*(  6  A. 

$i  974  052  ooo 

Mules  

4nci  ooo 

IO7  8d. 

J.^7  082  ooo 

Milch  cows  
Other  cattle  
Sheep              .... 

21,720,000 
49,379,000 

32.36 
17.49 

3A-1 

702,945,000 
863,754,000 

•4o 

6  ^ 

D4>14/>'~'uu 

UOD 

Ou4»  /V4>uuu 

These  figures  impress  us  with  the  vast  expenditures  and  out- 
lay of  money  in  animals  and  animal  products  in  the  United  States. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  animal  manufactures  foods 
such  as  fodders,  hays,  straws,  grains,  and  wastes,  many  of  which 
are  not  fit  food  for  man,  into  products  which  are  used  for  human 
consumption. 

l  1908  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


INTRODUCTION  V 

It  is  also  important  on  account  of  these  facts  that  we  learn 
the  principles  of  feeds  and  feeding  in  order  to  more  intelligent- 
ly increase  production  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time,  labor 
and  money. 

The  time  has  come  when  only  those  who  understand  feeding 
are  in  a  position  to  realize  the  maximum  profits  from  live-stock. 
The  population  of  this  country  is  rapidly  increasing  so  that  the 
human  race  is  consuming  more  and  more  of  the  grain  every 
year.  The  feeder  of  the  future  will  perhaps  find  grain  un- 
profitable for  feeding  live-stock  and  he  will  be  forced  to  utilize 
the  coarser  foods,  the  by-products  and  the  wastes.  In  order  to 
do  this  profitably,  the  principles  of  feeds  and  feeding  must  be 
understood. 


Contents. 


Preface Hi 

Introduction iv 

Section  I.  Relation  of   Plant  to   Animal    Life   and    Chemical 

Elements  Needed  by  Plants i 

Section  II.  Composition  of  the  Dry  Matter  of  Plants  and 

Animals 6 

Section  III.  Water  and  Dry  Matter  in  Plants  and  Animals 9 

Section  IV.  Ash  in  Plants 13 

Section  V.  Ash  in  Animals 18 

Section  VI.  Protein  in  Plants  and  Animals 22 

Section  VII.  Nitrogen  Free  Compounds 26 

Section  VIII.  Composition  of  Farm  Animals 31 

Section  IX.  Physiology  of  Digestion 36 

Section  X.  The  Circulation  of  Digested  Food 45 

Section  XI.  Conditions  Governing  Digestibility 51 

Section  XII.  The  Nutrients  and  Their  Functions 56 

Section  XIII.  Feed  Stuffs  as  a  Source  of  Energy 60 

Section  XIV.  Natural  Stock  Feeds 65 

Section  XV.  Commercial  Feeds 74 

Section  XVI.  Commercial  Feeds,  Continued 83 

Section  XVII.  Classes  of  Commercial  Feeds 90 

Section  XVIII.  Classes  of  Commercial  Feeds,  Continued 98 

Section  XIX.  Feed  Stuff  Laws  and  Feed  Adulterants 105 

Section  XX.  A  Few  Remarks  about  Feed  Stuffs 113 

Section  XXI.  Composition  and  Digestible  Nutrients  of  Feed  Stuffs 

and  the  Nutritive  Ratio 121 

Section  XXII.  Feeding  Standards 136 

Section  XXIII.  How  to  Balance  a  Ration  and  Terms  of  a  Nutritive 

Ratio 142 

Section  XXIV.  Amounts  of  Roughage  and  Concentrates  to  Feed. . .  147 
Section  XXV.  How  to  Improve  and  Reduce  the  Cost  of  Rations..  152 

Section  XXVI.  Table  of  Amounts  of  Dry  Matter  and  Digestible 

Nutrients  in  Feed  Stuffs. 157 

Section  XXVII.  Standards  for  Milch  Cows j  73 

Section  XXVIII.  Computation  of  Rations  According  to  Energy  Values  179 

Section  XXIX.  Feed  and  Care  of  Dairy  Cows 188 

Section  XXX.  Feed  and  Care  of  Fattening  Cattle 207 

Section  XXXI.  Feed  and  Care  of  Horses 215 

Section  XXXII.  Feed  and  Care  of  Sheep 22c 

Section  XXXIII.  Feed  and  Care  of  Swine 235 

Section  XXXIV.  Feed  and  Care  of  Young  Farm  Animals 246 

Section  XXXV.  Feed  and  Care  of  Poultry 255 

Section  XXXVI.  Standards  and  Rations  for  Poultry ...  261 

Section  XXXVII.  The  Importance  of  Raising  Live- Stock  and  the 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in  Feeds 269 

Section  XXXVIII.  Cropping  Systems  for  Stock  Farms.  The  State 

Agricultural    Experiment  Stations 278 


SECTION  I. 

RELATION  OF  PLANT  TO  ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  CHEMICAL 
ELEMENTS  NEEDED  BY  PLANTS. 

How  Plants  Feed. — Every  seed  is  made  up  of  a  germ  (em- 
bryo plant)  surrounded  by  stored  up  food.  When  a  seed  is 
dropped  into  the  warm  soil  it  germinates  and  feeds  on  this  stored 
up  food  material  until  it  has  put  forth  a  root,  stem  and  leaves. 
It  is  now  able  to  gather  its  food  from  the  air,  water  and  soil. 
On  the  roots  of  plants  are  minute  root  hairs,  composed  of 
single  cells,  which  absorb  food  materials  from  the  soil  water, 
by  means  of  osmosis  or  diffusion.  The  leaves,  on  the  under 
sides,  have  minute  openings  which  permit  the  breathing  of  air 
which  contains  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  carbon  is  used  in  build- 
ing up  the  plant  and  the  excess  of  oxygen  is  given  back  to  the 
atmosphere.  This  process  requires  the  presence  of  light  as  does 
chlorophyll  (green  coloring  matter  of  plants).  Plants  will  grow 
without  light  as  long  as  the  food  supply  in  the  seed  lasts,  but 
they  will  be  white  and  will  not  produce  seed.  By  the  aid  of 
sunlight  the  materials  gathered  by  the  root  hairs  and  leaves  are 
manufactured  into  compounds  and  retained  by  the  plants. 

The  Food  of  the  Plant.— The  plant  keeps  growing  until  it 
produces  seed.  It  may  continue  its  growth  for  years  as  is  the 
case  with  trees.  In  this  continual  growing  process  we  cannot 
see  the  plant  feeding  but  we  know  its  nourishment  is  obtained 
from  the  soil,  water  and  air.  The  food  of  the  plant,  then,  con- 
sists of  the  mineral  substances,  water  and  gases  taken  from  the 
soil  and  air. 

The  Food  of  the  Animal. — The  plant  takes  its  food  from 
mineral  substances,  water  and  gases  and  changes  these  materials 
into  many  compounds.  These  compounds  are  stored  in  the 
plant  and  are  in  a  form  suitable  for  animals  and  constitute  their 
food.  The  animal  feeds  on  the  plant  and  changes  plant  sub- 
stances into  bone,  flesh  and  blood.  If  the  animal  is  deprived  of 
the  plant  it  dies.  Therefore  we  know  that  the  plant  is  necessary 
for  the  existence  of  the  animal  and  constitutes  its  food. 


2  ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Action  of  the  Plant  on  the  Animal. — The  plant  is  the  animals' 
food.  The  plant  builds  them  up,  it  keeps  them  warm  and  it 
furnishes  substances  which  are  changed  into  energy  and  motive 
power.  No  matter  how  cold  it  may  be,  we  find  that  the  plant 
enables  the  animal  to  maintain  a  constant  body  temperature. 
This  temperature,  in  cold  weather,  is  much  warmer  than  the 
surrounding  air,  and  in  hot  weather,  it  is  cooler  than  the  out- 
side air.  Take  any  young  animal  and  feed  it  plant  substances, 
such  as  grain  and  hay,  and  it  continues  to  take  on  bone  and 
flesh  until  it  becomes  large  and  heavy.  As  the  animal  re- 
quires for  its  existence,  those  substances  which  the  plant  stores 
up,  we  may  properly  call  plant  substances  animals'  food  or  feed 
stuffs. 

Chemical  Elements  Needed  by  Plants. — All  forms  of  matter 
in  this  world  are  made  up  of  chemical  elements  in  various  com- 
binations. There  are  about  81  chemical  elements  known  to  us, 
but.  only  15  of  these  are  required  for  plant  life  so  far  as  we 
know.  In  order  to  thoroughly  understand  this  subject  of  feeds 
and  feeding  let  us  become  acquainted  with  these  fifteen  elements. 

The  Fifteen  Elements. — Hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon, 
potassium,  phosphorus,  calcium,  sulphur,  silicon,  iron,  chlorine, 
magnesium,  sodium,  'fluorine,  and  manganese  are  the  elements 
used  by  plants.  Some  of  these  elements  are  used  in  much  larger 
amounts  than  others.  Hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  chlorine, 
in  the  pure  state,  generally  occur  as  gases,  while  the  other 
elements  are  solids. 

Small  amounts  of  oxygen  are  sometimes  used  by  plants  in  the 
elementary  state.  Certain  plants  also  use  nitrogen  in  the  free 
state.  All  the  other  elements,  and  generally  oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
must  be  combined  with  other  of  these  elements  to  be  favorable 
for  the  support  of  plant  life. 

Hydrogen. — This  element  is  generally  found  in  combination 
with  other  elements.  In  the  free  state  it  occurs  only  in  small1 
quantities  upon  the  earth.  It  is  present  in  the  gases  of  petroleum 
wells,  around  volcanic  eruptions,  and  it  is  evolved  by  the  fer- 
mentation and  decomposition  of  some  organic  substances.  It 
is  abundantly  found  in  combination  with  other  elements.  Water, 


RELATION    OF   PLANT   TO   ANIMAL   LIFE  3 

hydrochloric  acid,  marsh  gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  all  acids 
and  most  organic  (animal  and  vegetable)  compounds  contain 
this  element.  It  is  necessary  for  plant  and  animal  life  and  it  is 
used  by  animals  in  the  form  of  water  and  as  a  constituent  of 
feeds. 

Oxygen. — About  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere  is  made  up  of 
this  element,  in  the  free  state,  mechanically  mixed  with  nitrogen. 
It  is  found  in  enormous  quantities  in  combination  with  other 
elements.  It  constitutes  about  eight-ninths  by  weight  of  water 
and  nearly  one-half  of  the  earth's  crust.  All  combustion  and 
decay  require  oxygen.  The  plant  stores  up  oxygen  in  combina- 
tion with  other  elements  and  it  enters  into  many  of  the  com- 
pounds of  the  animal  body.  Without  oxygen  plants  and  animals 
would  die.  The  plant  takes  in  oxygen  in  combination  with  car- 
bon as  carbonic  acid  gas,  through  the  openings  on  the  under 
sides  of  the  leaves ;  the  carbon  is  absorbed  and  the  excess  of 
oxygen  given  oft'.  The  animal  inhales  air  which  contains  oxygen, 
which  serves  to  purify  the  blood,  and  exhales  carbonic  acid  which 
is  thrown  off  by  the  blood  through  the  lungs.  So  the  supply  of 
oxygen  and  carbon  is  continually  being  used  and  formed. 

Nitrogen. — About  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  is  made  up 
of  nitrogen  in  the  free  state.  In  combination  this  element  is 
found  in  many  substances  such  as  ammonia,  sodium  nitrate, 
potassium  nitrate,  and  many  organic  compounds.  Certain  plants 
namely  the  legumes,  of  which  the  pea,  bean,  alfalfa,  clovers, 
cowpea,  soy  bean,  etc.  are  members,  have  the  power  of  gather- 
ing nitrogen  from  the  air,  by  means  of  certain  growths  (tuber- 
cles) on  their  roots.  Our  other  plants  are  not  capable  of  obtain- 
ing nitrogen  in  the  free  state.  This  element  is  one  of  the  most 
important  for  us  to  consider.  When  in  combination  with  other 
elements  in  plants,  it  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  compounds  for 
animals'  food.  In  fertilizers  it  is  the  most  expensive  and  fugitive 
of  essential  elements.  It  tends  to  produce  vigorous  growth  of 
plants. 

Carbon  is  found  in  the  free  state  in  charcoal,  graphite  and 
diamonds.  In  combination  with  oxygen  we  find  carbon  as  car- 
bon dioxide  (carbonic  acid  gas)  in  the  air.  It  is  given  off  by 


4  ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

combustion  and  by  respiration  of  animals.  All  carbonates  (lime- 
stone, chalk,  etc.)  and  all  organic  substances  contain  carbon.  It 
is  present  in  greater  quantities  in  plant  and  animal  life  than  any 
other  element.  Henry1  says:  "10,000  volumes  of  air  contain 
about  3  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  gas ;  32  cubic  yards  of  air  hold 
one  pound  of  this  gas.  An  acre  of  growing  wheat  will  gather 
during  four  months,  2,000  pounds  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  an 
amount  equal  to  all  the  air  contains  over  the  same  area  of  land  to 
a  height  of  three  miles."  All  of  our  farm  crops  use  a  great 
amount  of  carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Potassium  in  combination  is  very  common.  It  is  mined  in 
large  quantities  in  the  Stassfiirt  mines  of  Germany.  The  pres- 
ence of  this  element  in  wood  ashes  is  taken  advantage  of  in  mak- 
ing soft  soap.  Potassium  is  found  in  most  rocks  and  in  the 
soil.  In  plants  it  is  associated  with  organic  acids.  This  element 
is  essential  to  plant  growth  and  is  found  in  the  stems,  leaves  and 
fruits  of  plants.  It  is  also  present  in  the  animal,  mainly  in  the 
flesh,  liver,  blood  corpuscles  and  also  in  bones,  milk  and  other 
parts  of  the  animal  body. 

Phosphorus  is  found  in  combination  with  oxygen  and  metals, 
as  phosphates.  Vast  deposits  of  phosphates  are  found  in  Tenn- 
essee, South  Carolina,  Florida  and  some  of  the  western  states. 
It  is  present  in  many  rocks  and  most  soils  and  is  an  important 
element  for  plant  food.  It  tends  to  produce  early  maturity  in 
plants  and  helps  to  form  the  seed.  It  is  also  very  important  to 
the  animal,  where  it  is  found  in  the  hair,  urine,  muscles,  nerve 
tissues,  gland  cells,  milk,  and  bones.  Bones  contain  about  60 
to  65  per  cent,  of  calcium  phosphate  which  serves  to  strengthen 
them. 

Calcium  is  an  element  which  occurs  in  combination  in  many 
substances  as  in  lime,  marble,  coral,  and  gypsum.  Plants  and 
animals  require  this  element,  sometimes  in  larger  amounts  than 
one  would  imagine.  In  animals  it  is  found  in  the  blood,  milk, 
egg  shells  and  bones.  A  deficiency  of  this  element  in  the  food  of 
the  animal  often  causes  serious  diseases  of  the  bones. 

1  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


RELATION    OF   PLANT   TO   ANIMAL  LIFE  5 

Sulphur. — This  is  a  yellow  substance  which  is  found  in  large 
deposits  in  Louisiana,  California,  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
Sicily.  In  combination  it  is  present  in  gypsum,  pyrites,  galena, 
etc.  It  is  also  found  in  many  natural  waters  and  is  generally 
present  in  sufficient  quantities  in  soils  for  the  needs  of  plants. 
In  certain  parts  of  the  animal  body,  such  as  the  hair  and  other 
nitrogenous  tissues,  it  occupies  an  important  place. 

Silicon  occurs  in  combination  as  sand,  flint,  quartz,  etc.  It 
is  present  in  most  rocks  and  soils.  Plants  require  this  element 
to  support  certain  parts  of  their  structure.  The  hulls  and  straws 
of  plant  substances  are  often  comparatively  rich  in  this  element. 

Iron. — We  are  all  familiar  with  this  element  as  in  combination  it 
is  widely  distributed.  Although  used  in  small  amounts  by  plants 
and  animals  it  is  nevertheless  very  important.  It  is  present  in 
the  blood  and  necessary  to  all  cells  of  the  animal  body. 

Chlorine  is  most  commonly  found  as  the  chloride  (common 
salt).  It  also  occurs  in  combination  with  hydrogen,  as  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  in  the  gastric  juice. 

Magnesium. — This  element  is  prevalent  in  most  rocks  and  soils 
in  sufficient  amounts  for  the  plant.  Many  natural  waters  contain 
magnesium.  It  is  found  associated  as  carbonate,  with  lime. 
Bones  and  muscles  contain  magnesium. 

Sodium. — Chloride  is  the  commonest  compound  of  this  ele- 
ment and  is  found  in  common  salt,  sea  water,  salt  lakes  and  in 
many  springs  and  waters.  It  occurs  in  sodium  nitrate  and 
sodium  carbonate.  As  chloride,  sodium  is  very  important  in 
animal  life.  It  is  present  in  blood  serum,  lymph  and  urine  of 
animals.  It  is  used  a  great  deal  in  the  fluids  of  the  animal  body 
and  is  a  source  of  the  acid  in  gastric  juice. 

Fluorine. — This  element  occurs  in  combination  with  calcium. 
It  is  present  in  some  mineral  waters,  in  bones  and  the  enamel 
of  teeth. 

Manganese  occurs  in  combination  as  manganese  blend,  man- 
ganese, spar,  manganite,  etc.  Plants  use  this  element  in  small 
amounts. 

Suggestion:  Secure  an  exhibit  of  substances  containing  the 
elements  discussed  in  this  section. 


SECTION    II. 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  DRY  MATTER  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS. 

All  plants  and  animals  are  made  up  of  water  and  dry  matter. 
The  water  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  while  the  dry 
matter  contains  many  elements  and  combinations  of  elements. 

Composition  of  the  Dry  Matter  of  Plants. — According  to  Jor- 
dan,1 a  German  scientist,  Knop,  estimated :  '"That  if  all  the 
species  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  exclusive  of  the  fungi,  were 
fused  into  one  mass,  the  ultimate  composition  of  the  dry  matter 
of  this  mixture  would  be  the  tollowing:" 

Per  cent. 

Carbon 45 

Oxygen 42 

Hydrogen 6.5 

Nitrogen 1.5 

Mineral  compounds  (ash) 5.0 

From  the  above  analysis  it  is  readily  seen  that  carbon  and 
oxygen  make  up  the  largest  proportion  of  plants.  Let  us  ex- 
amine the  analyses  of  some  farm  products  that  are  familiar  to  us, 
and  find  out  if  this  same  predominance  of  carbon  and  oxygen 
exists.1 


Carbon 
Per  cent, 

Oxygen 
Per  cent. 

Hydrogen 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 
Per  cent. 

Ash 
Per  cent. 

AM  A 

•*7  8 

50 

2  i 

77 

Wheat  kernel  
Fodder  beets  

46.1 

42  8 

o/-° 
43-4 

Al  A 

5-8 
«;  8 

2-3 
I   7 

2.4 

6  * 

Fodder  beet  leaves 
\Vheat  straw  

38-1 

A&  A 

30.8 

78   Q 

5-i 

57 

4-5 

O  A 

w«o 

21.5 
70 

^0<V 

•o 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  composition  of  these  farm 
products  but  the  carbon  and  oxygen  constitute  the  largest 
amounts  of  the  elements  present. 

This  predominance  of  carbon  and  oxygen  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  about  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  plant's  food  is  obtained 
from  air  and  water,  and  the  remaining  one-twentieth  is  derived 
from  mineral  compounds  of  the  soil  and  soil  water. 

1  Jordan,  "The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


DRY   MATTER  OF  PLANTS   AND  ANIMALS 


Distribution  of  the  Mineral  Elements  in  Plants. — Let  us  see 

the  proportions  of  mineral  elements  that  the  plant  stores  up  in 
its  period  of  growth.     This  table  is  figured  on  dry  matter.1 


Potas- 
sium 

Sodium 

Calcium 

Magne- 
sium 

Iron 

Phospho- 
rus 

Sul- 
phur 

.43 
1.09 

•59 
•93 
1.69 

3-24 
3.02 
2.26 
3-57 
3.07 
1.49 

.28 

.25 

.72 

•31 
.25 
1.52 

•59 

.82 

.58 
•37 
.10 

.04 
•30 
•35 
•54 

•  17 
2.15 
.61 
2.74 

.84 

•33 
.86 

.08 
.12 

.15 
.18 
1.02 
.18 
.28 
.21 

•T9 

•  15 

.OI 
.11 
.14 
.03 

3 

•05 
•13 
•03 
.06 
.08 

.09 
.29 
.21 

•15 
.20 

•31 

.44 
.37 
.50 
.74 
.40 

.04 
.08 
.04 
.05 
.06 

3 

•  44 
.53 
.44 

.12 

Sugar  beet  leaves. 

Composition  of  the  Dry  Matter  of  Animals. — The  proportion 
of  carbon  to  oxygen  is  greater  in  animals  than  in  plants.  The 
increase  of  carbon  over  oxygen  is  due  to  the  presence  of  fats  in 
the  animal  body.  Fats  are  made  up  largely  of  carbon.  As  in 
plants,  the  elements  carbon  and  oxygen  are  found  in  the  greatest 
amounts.  The  following  table2  gives  the  composition  of  a  fat 
ox  and  two  steers. 


Fat  ox 
Lawes  &  Gilbert 
Per  cent. 

Two  steers  2  years  old 
Maine  Exp.  Station 
Per  cent. 

Carbon  

63.0 
13-8 
9-4 
5-0 
8.8 

6o.O 
14.1 
9.0 
5-8 
ii.  i 

Mineral  compounds  (ash)  

The  above  table  is  interesting  because  it  shows  that  the  animal 
body  is  composed  so  largely  of  carbon  and  oxygen.  It  also 
shows  that  the  largest  part  of  the  elements  required  by  animals 
does  not  have  to  be  supplied  to  growing  crops,  as  most  of  the 
animals'  food  is  obtained  by  the  plant  from  the  air  and  water. 

1  Bui.  201,  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 
-  Jordan,  "The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


8 


ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Mineral  Elements  in  Animal  Substances. — The  following-  table1 
gives  the  distribution  of  the  mineral  elements  in  some  animal 
substances. 


Potas- 
sium 

Sodium 

Cal- 
cium 

Magne- 
sium 

Iron 

Phos- 
phorus 

Sul- 
phur 

Chlo- 
rine 

CQ 

CQ 

07 

O2 

OI 

C7 

004 

•Ou 
QA 

•0V 
eft 

O7 

jO 

02 

78 

7r 

•V4 

I   47 

•3° 

•vj 

O? 

12 

Ql 

8O 

Q2 

Steer's  flesh 

!•«»/ 

T    C  r 

•ow 

27 

•uo 
OI 

IO 

•VJ 

IO 

7O 

:?8 

L-5L 

l8 

•*/ 

O2 

20 

OA 

I  A 

O2 

26 

I  A 

O7 

OA 

OA 

16 

•Vy 

T  r 

O7 

1  2 

•vo 

OI 

OO2 

08 

1  A 

•*o 

The  distribution  of  the  mineral  elements  in  the  body  of  the 
ox  is  as  follows:2 

Per  cent. 

Phosphorus .677 

Calcium 1.281 

Magnesium .037 

Potassium. • .  146 

Sodium .094 

Iron .017 

Sulphur .013 

Live  weight I4!9  pounds 

Age 4  years 

Calcium,  phosphorus  and  potassium  predominate  in  the  miner- 
al compounds  of  the  animal  body.  Although  some  of  the  other 
elements  are  present  in  only  small  amounts  they  are  very  im- 
portant to  the  welfare  of  the  animal. 

1  Bui.  201,  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 
-  Bui.  201,  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


SECTION  III. 


WATER  AND   DRY   MATTER   IN   PLANTS. 

The  substances  which  the  plant  stores  up  in  its  period  of 
growth  are  made  up  of  the  chemical  elements  previously  de- 
scribed. These  elements  are  not  found  in  the  free  state  in  plants, 
but  in  various  combinations,  and  may  be  classified  as  water  and 
dry  matter. 

Kinds  of  Water  in  Plants. — All  plants  and  parts  of  plants 
contain  water.  The  water  in  plants  is  of  two  forms;  physio- 
logical and  hygroscopic. 

1.  Physiological  Water  is  that  which  is  contained  in  the  plant 
structure.     It  is  obtained  from  the  soil.     It  is  used  to  keep  the 
leaf  tissues  and  their  cell  walls  moist  so  that  carbonic  acid  gas 
may  be  absorbed,  to  transfer  food  materials,  and  to  regulate  the 
temperature  of  the  plant  by  means  of  evaporation  of  water,  just 
as   the    temperature    of   the    animal    body   is    regulated    by   the 
evaporation  of  perspiration. 

2.  Hygroscopic  Water  is  that  which  is  taken  up  from  the  air 
and  may  vary  from  day  to  day  according  to  the  humidity  of  the 
surrounding  air.     On  rainy  days  more  water  would  be  taken  up 
than  on  dry  days.     The  writer  has  often  determined  the  water 
content  of  the  same  samples  of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  cotton 
seed  meal,   hays,   etc.,   on    different   days   and   found  variations 
of  two  per  cent.     Sometimes  there  is  an  increase  and  at  other 
times    a   decrease    of   hygroscopic    water,    depending   upon    the 
humidity    of    the    surrounding   air.     The    hygroscopic    moisture 
also  varies  with  different  plant  materials. 

Amounts  of  Water  Used  by  Plants. — According  to  Whitson,1  the 
amount  of  water  used  by  plants  varies  greatly  with  the  kind  of 
plant  and  with  climatic  conditions,  but  is  always  large.  For 
instance,  in  the  growth  of  one  pound  of  dry  matter  of  corn  about 
250  to  300  pounds  of  water  are  used;  for  potatoes,  350  to  400 
pounds ;  for  clover,  500  to  600  pounds. 

Variation  of  Water  in  Plants. — Some  species  of  plants  con- 
tain much  more  water  than  others  and  the  different  parts  of  the 

1  Halligan,  "  Fundamentals  of  Agriculture." 
2 


IO         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON   STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

same  plant  show  a  great  variation  in  water  content.  We  have  all 
no  doubt  noticed  that  certain  fruits  like  the  apple,  pear,  lemon, 
plum,  peach,  strawberry,  etc.,  and  roots  and  tubers  as  the  turnip, 
beet,  radish,  carrot,  Irish  potato,  etc.,  contain  a  great  deal  of 
water.  Perhaps  some  have  not  heretofore  thought  that  sub- 
stances like  corn  grain,  wheat  kernel,  rice  kernel,  the  several 
grain  straws,  etc.,  have  water  present.  The  following  table  gives 
us  the  percentage  of  water  in  some  familiar  plants  and  parts  of 
plants. 

FRUITS  FORAGE  PLANTS  (green) 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Apple 80.0  Alfalfa 71.8 

Grape 83.0  Corn 79.3 

Peach 88.4  Cowpea 83.6 

Pear 83. 1  Sorghum 79. 4 

Strawberry  90.2  Timothy 61.6 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  CEREAI.S  AND  STRAWS 

Beet  (mangel) 90.9  CornJ  (grain) 10.6 

Carrot 88.6  Oats  (grain)  . n.o 

Irish  potato 78.9  Rice  ( rough) 10.9 

Sweet  potato 71.1  Rye  straw 7.1 

Turnip   90.5  Wheat  straw 9.6 

Water  in  Young  and  Mature  Plants. — The  percentage  of  water 
in  young  plants  is  greater  than  in  mature  plants.  This  is  easily 
accounted  for  because  the  young  plant  uses  a  great  deal  of 
water  in  transferring  food  materials  required  for  its  growth. 
The  Maine  State  College  conducted  an  investigation  on  Timothy 
with  the  following  results:1 

Water  Water 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Nearly  headed  out 78.7  Out  of  blossom 65.2 

In  full  blossom 71.9  Nearly  ripe 63.3 

The  results  on  Timothy  are  similar  to  what  would  be  found 
with  other  plants.  It  follows  that  the  more  mature  a  plant  is, 
the  easier  it  is  to  field  cure. 

Active  cells  in  plants  contain  more  water  than  do  the  older  or 
less  active  cells  and  this  may  account  for  the  larger  percentage 
of  water  found  in  young  plants. 

1  Jordan,  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


WATER    AND   DRY    MATTER    IN    PLANTS 


II 


Dry  Matter  of  Plants. — As  previously  stated,  the  plant  is  made 
up  of  water  and  dry  matter.  When  water  is  driven  off  from 
plants  the  dry  matter  is  what  remains.  Now  if  we  burn  this 
dry  matter  a  large  proportion  of  it  passes  off  in  the  form  of 
invisible  gases.  This  material  which  so  disappears,  in  burning, 
is  known  as  organic  matter;  that  which  is  left  is  the  ash  or 
mineral  matter. 

The  organic  matter  is  composed  of  protein,  fats,  nitrogen  free 
extract  and  fiber.  The  ash  is  made  up  of  soda,  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  iron,  potash,  lime,  sand,  magnesia,  etc. 

Jordan1  shows  the  relation  of  the  fifteen  elements  to  these 
compounds : 


All  vegetable  or 
animal  matter 


Incombustible 
or  inorganic 
matter 


Ash 


Combustible  or 
organic  matter 


Protein 


Oxygen 

Sulphur 

Chlorine 

Phosphorus 

Silicon 

Fluorine 

Potassium 

Sodium 

Calcium 

Magnesium 

Iron 

Manganese 

Carbon 

Oxygen 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Sulphur 

(generally) 
Phosphorus 

(sometimes) 
Iron  (in  a  few  cases) 


Composition  of  Plants. — We  may  express  the  composition  of 
plants  and  parts  of  plants  (feed  stuffs)  in  a  condensed  form  as 
follows : 


Plant  f 

(feedstuff)      \ 


Water 
Dry  matter 


Ash 

Organic 
matter 


Protein 

Fats 

Carbohydrates 


Nitrogen 

free  extract 
Fiber 


The  chemist  usually  expresses  the  composition  as: 

Protein  Crude  fiber 

Fats  (ether  extract)  Water 

Nitrogen  free  extract  Ash 

1  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals  " 


12         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Water  in  Animals. — There  is  considerable  water  in  the  animal 
body.  It  is  present  in  the  blood,  tissues,  and  digestive  juices 
and  secretions.  About  80  per  cent,  of  the  blood  is  water;  the 
per  cent,  of  water  in  the  tissues  and  digestive  fluids  varies 
according  to  their  nature  and  in  species. 

The  following  data  are  the  results  of  investigations  by  Lawes 
and  Gilbert  and  the  Maine  Experiment  Station. 

WATER 

Per  cen'. 

Fat  calf 63.0 

Half-fat  ox 51.5 

Fat  ox 45.5 

Steer  half  fat,  17  months  old 56.3 

Steer  half  fat,  17  months  old 59.0 

Steer  fat,  27  months  old 52.2 

Steer  fat,  27  months  old 51.9 

Fat  lamb 47.8 

Sheep  lean 57.3 

Half-fat  old  sheep 50.2 

Fat  sheep 43.4 

Extra  fat  sheep 35.2 

Lean  pig 55.  i 

Fat  pig 41.3 

From  the  above  data  we  can  see  there  is  a  wide  variation  in 
the  water  of  animals,  and  that  the  per  cent,  of  water  is  always 
large.  The  fat  calf  contains  63  per  cent,  of  water  while  in  the 
extra  fat  sheep  the  water  is  as  low  as  35.2  per  cent.  It  is  shown 
that  the  water  content  decreases  with  age ;  the  fat  calf  contains 
17.5  per  cent,  more  water  than  the  fat  ox.  The  per  cent,  of 
water  varies  with  species ;  the  pig  generally  contains  less  water 
than  sheep  and  cattle.  The  degree  of  fatness  also  influences 
the  amount  of  water  in  the  animal  body;  the  fat  ox  and  the  fat 
sheep  contain  much  less  water  than  the  half-fat  ox  and  sheep. 
It  may  be  safely  said  that  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  body  of  the 
animal  is  made  up  of  water. 

Suggestion:  Take  one  pound  of  green  grass  and  dry  it  in 
the  sun  or  else  take  some  sliced  potatoes  and  dry  them  below 
212  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  ascertain  the  loss  in  weight.  What 
is  the  loss  in  weight  due  to? 


SECTION  IV. 

ASH  IN  PLANTS. 

The  mineral  elements  that  make  up  the  ash  are  not  present  in 
the  free  state  but  in  various  combinations.  A  knowledge  of  the 
ash  of  plants  and  the  combinations  that  make  it  up  should  be 
understood  by  the  feeder. 

Acids  and  Bases. — The  acids  and  bases  of  the  mineral  ele- 
ments of  ash  are : 

ACIDS 

Sulphuric  (hydrogen,  sulphur  and  oxygen)  H2SO4 
Hydrochloric  (hydrogen  and  chlorine)  HC1 
Phosphoric  (hydrogen,  phosphorus  and  oxygen)  H6P2O8 
Carbonic  (carbon  and  oxygen)  CO2 
Silicic  (silicon  and  oxygen)  SiO2 

BASES 

Lime  (calcium  and  oxygen)  CaO 
Soda  (sodium  and  oxygen)  Na2O 
Potash  (potassium  and  oxygen)  K2O 
Magnesia  (magnesium  and  oxygen)  MgO 
Iron  oxide  (iron  and  oxygen)  Fe2O3 

The  mineral  elements  do  not  exist  as  acids  and  bases  in  the 
ash,  because  in  the  burning  of  plant  substances  there  is  a  re- 
arrangement of  the  mineral  elements  and  salts  are  formed. 

Salts. — The  elements  exist  in  the  ash  of  plants  as  salts.  That 
is  the  acids  and  bases  as  united  and  form: 

Phosphates  "]                    f  Calcium 

Sulphates  f         !  Magnesium 

Chlorides  and  (                   |  Sodium 

Carbonates  [  Potassium 

\Yc  are  all  familiar  with  some  of  these  salts.  A  few  of  the 
combinations  are : 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt) 

Carbonate  of  lime  (limestone) 

Chloride  of  potash  (muriate  of  potash) 

Carbonate  of  soda  (baking  powder) 

Sulphate  of  soda  (Glauber's  salts) 

Sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom  salts) 

Sulphate  of  calcium  (gypsum) 

Sulphate  of  potash  (common  sulphate  of  potash  of  commerce) 


14         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Variation  of  Ash. — The  content  of  ash  in  different  feeds  var- 
ies a  great  deal  as  the  following  table  shows : 


GRAINS  ASH 

Per  cent. 

Corn 1.5 

Oats    3.0 

Rice 5.5 

Wheat    1.8 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  (fresh) 

Beet  (mangel) i.i 

Carrot i.o 

Irish  potato i.o 

Sweet  potato i.o 


STRAW  ASH 

Per  cent. 

Oat 5.1 

Rice.' 7.8 

Rye 3-2 

Wheat '  4.2 

FORAGE  PLANTS  (hay) 

Alfalfa 7.4 

Crimson  clover 8.6 

Orchard  grass 6.0 

Timothy 4.4 


Different  parts  of  the  same  plant  vary  in  ash  content. 


ASH 

Per  cent 


Corn  grain 

1.5 

Corn  leaves 9.7 

Corn  (whole  plant) 4.3 

Corn  germ 4.0 


ASH 
Per  cent. 
Corn  stover  (whole  plant 

except  ears) 4.9 

Corn  shucks 3.4. 

Corn  cob 1.4 

Corn  bran 1.3 


There  is  also  a  variation  in  the  amounts  of  compounds  in  the 
ash  of  different  parts  of  the  same  plant.  The  percentages  of  the 
compounds  in  this  table  are  figured  on  100  per  cent,  ash  of  sugar 
cane.1 


Ash  of  leaves 
Per  cent. 

Ash  of  stalk 
Per  cent. 

Ash  of  roots 
Per  cent. 

Potash  

•J  T      2^ 

78   2"> 

Soda  .    ... 

6L  -*o 

I    17 

6°"i6 
I  10 

1  /  -6y 
n  Sc 

5QO 

AOU 
5IQ 

•7" 

51  r 

•  xy 

r    76 

•4o 
2  A  r 

Iron  oxide  

•  l  *• 

I  A^ 

0-/u 

T       T  7 

i  £n 

Alumina  

*»«K) 

I  O1 

*•  lo 

O  oc 

0.OO 

Silica  

-i.u^ 

7Q    72 

U-^O 
I  ^    7O 

Phosphoric  acid  

0^-6^ 
7   or 

io-  /u 

527 

*RJ»5* 

Sulphuric  acid  

I  I    2Q 

••*/ 

l8  47 

•99 

Carbonic  acid  

ii.^y 
I    IO 

2  70 

•  *o 

Chlorine  

7    08 

A    ^2 

n  nS 

j.UO 

o  16 

H'O* 

Ash  

227. 

o  64 

2.30 

T   S7 

I.O/ 

Louisiana  Experiment  Station,  Bui.  91. 


ASH    IN    PLANTS  15 

From  the  figures  given  in  the  foregoing  tables  we  find  that 
the  leaves  of  plants  contain  the  most  ash.  The  straws  contain 
more  ash  than  the  grains. 

Let  us  see  the  relation  of  the  ash  of  roots  to  the  leaves  of  the 
same  plant. 

ROOTS  LEAVES 

Per  cent,  ash  Per  cent,  ash 

Sugar  beet 3.83  14.88 

Stock  turnip 8.01  11.64 

The  per  cent,  of  ash  in  seeds  is  generally  less  than  in  the  plant 
from  which  they  are  derived. 

ASH  ASH 

Per  cent.                                                                   Per  cent. 
Sorghum  seed 2.1  Sorghum  fodder 4.6 

Cowpea  seed 3.2  Cowpea  hay 7.5 

So j a  bean  seed 4.7  Soja  bean  hay 7.2 

The  per  cent,  of  ash  and  the  mineral  elements  that  constitute 
the  ash  are  given  for  several  vegetable  substances  in  the  follow- 
ing table.1 

Occurrence  of  Mineral  Elements  in  Plants. — According  to 
Forbes,  Ohio  Experiment  Station  Bui.  201 :  "Mineral  sub- 
stances of  foodstuffs  are  present  in  four  mechanical  conditions: 
(i)  in  solution  in  the  plant  juices;  (2)  as  crystals  in  the  tissues; 
(3)  as  incrustations  in  cells  and  (4)  in  chemical  combination 
with  the  living  substance. 

"The  mineral  content  of  any  species  of  plant  varies  con- 
siderably as  affected  (i)  by  the  composition  of  the  soil  and  the 
soil  water,  (2)  by  the  various  factors  controlling  transpiration  of 
water  by  the  plant  and  (3)  by  the  loss  of  mineral  substances 
either  through  shedding  of  parts  or  through  the  leaching  effect 
of  dews  and  rains." 

Distribution  of  Ash  in  Plants. — Roots  and  seeds  generally 
contain  much  less  ash  than  leaves  because  the  mineral  elements 
are  carried  to  the  leaves  for  the  elaboration  (manufacturing)  of 
food  and  then  the  water  evaporates  and  the  ash  remains.  The 
ash  present  in  roots  and  seeds  is  usually  needed  for  supporting 
germination  and  early  growth  of  the  plant,  while  some  of  that  in 
the  leaves  is  in  excess  of  what  is  really  needed. 

1  Bui.  201,  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


l6         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


MINERAL   ELEMENTS  IN   VEGETABLE   SUBSTANCES   (dry  basis) 


Ash 

Potas- 
sium 

Sodium 

Cal- 
cium 

Magne- 
sium 

Iron 

Phos- 
ahorus 

Sul- 
phur 

Seeds 

1.99 
3.22 

1-45 
3.12 

•39 
3-14 
1.96 

.68 
7.48 
5.84 

6*.  08 
6.16 

3-79 
15  67 
3-83 
8.or 

14.88 
11.64 

7.38 
6.86 
7.32 

5-i8 
6.82 

7.17 
5-37 

5-33 

9.62 

835 
8.10 

.27 

1.18 

•36 

.46 
.07 
1.16 
•  51 

.16 
1.85 
1.18 

•  15 
.56 
1.46 

1.89 
2.86 
1.69 

3.02 

3-24 
2.26 

1.44 
1.84 
1-31 

i.  Si 
1.96 

1.72 
.61 

1.61 

3-57 
3-°7 
2.23 

.06 

.04 
.01 

.04 

.02 
.02 
.03 

.02 

.06 
.003 
.10 
•03 

.08 

•44 
.25 
•59 

1-52 

.82 

.10 
.10 

•39 

.09 

.18 
.06 

•05 

.58 
•37 
.20 

.OI 

•15 
.02 
-  .08 
.OI 
.12 
•05 

•03 
.24 

•35 
•03 
.09 

•13 

.07 
.98 

•  17 
.61 

2.15 

2-74 

2.15 
1.71 
1.58 

.18 
•39 

.36 

.22 
.41 

.84 

•33 
1.27 

•15 
•15 
.14 
.14 
•03 
•17 
•14 

.06 

•69 
.56 
•03 
.64 

.66 
.11 

:!i 

.18 

1.02 
.28 

.22 

•  45 
.42 

.10 
•13 

.16 
.08 

.18 

.21 
•19 
•19 

.02 
.OI 
.08 

•03 
.003 

.02 

.02 
.07 
.11 
.OO2 
•23 

•°3 

•03 
•13 
•  03 
.05 

.06 
•13 

.10 

•05 
.11 

.04 
.06 

.02 
.09 

•03 
.06 
.07 

.29 
•50 
•29 

•35 
.09 
•50 
.40 

•13 
1.50 
.81 
.11 
1.  14 
i-35 

.28 
2.81 

.20 

.44 

•3i 
•37 

•  27 
.29 

.41 

.22 

•35 

.14 
.11 

.19 

•50 
•  74 
•39 

.02 

•05 
.004 
.02 
.001 

•03 
.003 

.04 
.08 

.OI 
.OO2 

.10 

.48 
.06 

.36 

•32 

•44 

•  17 
.09 

.22 

.IO 

.08 

.09 
•05 

.11 

•  53 
.44 
•  45 

Corn               •  •  •    •  •  * 

Oats 

Winter  wheat  
By-Products 

Cotton  seed  meal  .  .  . 

T^atent  flour 

Rice  bran  (meal)  •• 

Roots  and  Tubers 

Potato 

Radish  

Leaves 
Sugar  beet  leaves  •  .  . 

Legumes 
Alfalfa  in  bloom  .  .  . 
Clover  (red)  in 

Clover  (white)  in 

Grasses 
Kentucky  blue  
Timothy  

Straw 
Oat  

Wheat  

Fodder 
Corn  stover  

Miscellaneo  us 
Cabbage  •  • 

Cauliflower  •  •  • 

Rape    

Phosphorus  and  potassium  are  present  in  the  largest  amounts 
in  seeds,  followed  by  magnesia.  Silicon  and  potassium  predom- 
inate in  cereal  grasses  and  straws,  and  the  per  cent,  of  calcium 


ASH     IN     PLANTS  17 

is  usually  larger  than  phosphorus  or  magnesium.  The  legumin- 
ous crops  (alfalfa,  clovers,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  etc.)  contain 
more  calcium  than  phosphorus  or  potassium.  Roots  and  legumes 
contain  much  less  silicon  than  straws. 

Ash  of  Young  and  Mature  Plants. — According  to  Wolff  the 
per  cent,  of  ash  of  the  dry  matter  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  clover 
decreases  with  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  ash  of  healthful 
plants  is  generally  higher  in  calcium  than  in  sickly  plants.  The 
per  cent,  of  calcium  and  potassium  in  the  ash  of  grass  plants 
decreases  in  the  growing  of  the  plant  and  the  silicon  increases. 
In  the  ash  of  the  dry  matter  of  clover,  the  magnesium  and  calcium 
increase  while  the  potassium  decreases. 

Suggestion:  Take  a  small  quantity  of  hay  and  have  the 
pupils  approximate  the  weight  of  it.  Burn  this  hay  in  a  dish 
and  show  the  students  the  remaining  portion  or  ash.  Ask  them 
the  loss  in  weight.  Let  them  rub  the  ash  between  their  fingers. 


SECTION    V. 


ASH  IN  ANIMALS. 

The  ash  in  animals  is  small  in  amount  but  it  is  very  important 
that  animals  receive  sufficient  of  this  constituent  for  the  full  de- 
velopment of  their  bodies. 

Mineral  Constituents  must  be  supplied  to  build  bones,  teeth, 
and  other  hard  parts  of  the  animal  body.  The  digestive  fluids, 
blood,  brain  and  other  parts  of  the  animal,  require  mineral  sub- 
stances to  render  them  complete.  In  order  that  many  parts  of 
the  animal  body  may  carry  on  their  functions,  mineral  com- 
pounds must  be  constantly  furnished.  To  form  bones  and  teeth, 
calcium,  phosphorus,  magnesium,  carbonates,  chlorides,  and  fluor- 
ides are  necessary. 

The  gastric  juice  must  be  supplied  with  mineral  elements  to 
form  hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorides.  Potassium  is  also  present 
in  the  gastric  juice  as  well  as  in  the  saliva.  Iron  is  found  in  the 
blood  and  iodine  in  the  thyroid  gland.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus 
are  present  in  the  brain,  blood  and  many  other  organs,  un- 
oxidized. 

Calcium  and  Phosphorus. — These  are  the  most  important  min- 
eral elements  entering  into  animal  life.  Often  the  soil  becomes 
depleted  of  calcium  and  phosphorus,  and  plants  grown  on  such 
soil,  when  used  for  animal  food,  sometimes  lack  sufficient  quanti- 
ties of  these  elements  for  the  production  of  bones,  milk,  eggs, 
flesh,  wool,  nerves,  etc.  and  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  animal. 

Malnutrition. — Again  some  of  our  feeding  materials  never 
do  contain  sufficient  amounts  of  calcium  and  phosphorus  for 
the  animal,  and  serious  diseases  are  sometimes  brought  about 
through  malnutrition  of  bones.  Corn  grain  or  corn  meal,  for 
example,  when  fed  alone  as  food  for  hogs  in  the  pen,  does  not 
supply  enough  of  the  mineral  elements  to  form  rigid  bones  to 
support  the  body.  An  examination  of  the  composition  of  the  ash 
of  the  bones  of  an  ox  may  be  interesting. 


ASH    IN    ANIMALS  19 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BONKS  OF  AN  Ox.1 

Per  cent. 

Calcium  phosphate  •  ^ - 85. 72 

Calcium  carbonate 1 1 .96 

Calcium  chloride 0.30 

Calcium  fluoride 0.45 

Magnesium  phosphate 1.53 

Iron  oxide o.  13 

The  composition  of  the  bones  of  other  animals  approximates 
that  of  the  ox  and  we  can  readily  see  that  animals  must  receive 
calcium  and  phosphorus  in  order  that  they  may  build  up  strong 
bones  to  support  their  bodies. 

Ratio  of  Phosphoric  Acid  to  Lime. — About  85  per  cent,  of  the 
ash  of  bones  is  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  These  compound' 
usually  exist  in  the  following  ratio;  one  of  phosphoric  acid  to 
one  and  one-half  of  lime;  or,  1:1.5.  If  the  animal  is  receiving 
food  that  reaches  or  approximates  this  ratio,  we  may  feel  certain 
that  the  mineral  compounds  for  building  the  bony  structure  are 
being  properly  supplied.  The  following  table,  the  work  of 
Warrington  or  Wolff,  gives  the  ratio  of  phosphoric  acid  to  lime 
in  several  feeds  common  to  the  feeder  of  live-stock. 


Name  of  feed 


Phosphoric  acid 


Lime 


o  04 

o  06 

o  02 

o  08 

O  OQ 

o  66 

O  77 

Potato  fTri<;Ti^ 

Q     T  C 

u.  13 
O  8l 

I   1^ 

1'6o 
2  27 

2  24 

2  28 

1  60 

Alfalfa  

A    78 

4  62 

Carnot. 


20         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 

The  ratio  of  lime  to  phosphoric  acid  is  very  low  in  the  grains, 
the  oat  hay  and  the  wheat  plant.  Notice  how  high  the  ratio 
is  in  the  legumes  (clovers,  alfalfa  and  pea  straw).  What  an 
excellent  combination  the  legumes  and  grasses  make  for  the 
grains  and  their  by-products  in  furnishing  the  mineral  con- 
stituents so  necessary  for  animal  life.  What  a  poor  ration  oat 
hay,  wheat  hay  or  other  of  the  cereal  straws,  and  the  grains  would 
make  for  supplying  the  needs  of  animals,  because  of  the  excess 
of  phosphoric  acid  to  lime. 

Composition  of  Milk. — It  is  especially  essential  that  the  young 
animals  receive  adequate  mineral  constituents  in  order  to  get  a 
good  start  in  life.  If  we  examine  the  composition  of  milk  of 
various  animals  we  learn  that  nature  has  provided  for  this.1 


Time  in  days 
For  the    new 

ioo  parts  of  i 

nilk  contain 

Species 

born   animal 
to  double  its 
weight 

Protein 

Ash 

Calcium 

Phosphorus 

1  80 

I  6 

O  2 

O2  1 

O22 

60 

2  o 

OA 

086 

O^7 

Oow 

A1 

3r 

O  7 

I  \A. 

087 

Ooflt 

22 

•0 

37 

o  78 

TAT. 

1  22 

CVipp-pj 

J  C 

•  / 

4Q 

o  84 

178 

I  27 

'o 

•1  A 

•  y 

52 

o  80 

178 

1  1^ 

Pat 

9r 

•* 
70 

I  O2 

•  '  oo 

F)nty 

•0 

.V 

7  A 

I    11 

72  I 

221 

ljvg  
Rahhit 

6 

/•*» 

10  4 

*'OO 

2   ^O 

636 

417 

It  seems  that  the  more  rapid  the  growth  of  the  animal  the 
higher  are  the  protein  and  ash  contents.  This  is  as  it  should  be, 
for  a  fast  growing  animal  must  have  rigid  bones  to  support  the 
body. 

Composition  of  the  Ash  of  Animals. — The  following  table1  gives 
the  composition  of  the  ash  of  a  few  fat  animals  in  per  cent.  The 
data  is  the  work  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert. 


Bui.  201,  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


ASH    IN    ANIMALS 


21 


Ox 

Calf 

Sheep 

Lamb 

pig 

.677 
1.281 

•°37 
.146 
.094 
.017 
.013 
1419 
4yrs. 

.670 

I.I77 
.048 
.171 
.109 
.015 
.016 
258.8 
9.5  wks. 

•454 
.846 
.029 

•1-23 
.072 
.024 

.012 
127.2 

i#  y«. 

.492 
•915 
.031 
.138 
.076 
.018 
.016 
84.4 

Y2  yr. 

.286 

•455 
.019 

•  US 
•054 
.009 
.012 
185.0 

Live  weight  Ibs.  .  . 

Age  

The  results  in  this  table  show  that  calcium  and  phosphorus  are 
present  in  the  greatest  amounts  in  the  animal  body.  Although 
the  mineral  constituents  are  found  in  small  amounts  in  the  animal 
body,  they  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  health  of  the  animal. 
Potassium  is  present  in  larger  amounts  than  sodium ;  magnesium 
is  found  in  larger  amounts  than  iron  and  sulphur ;  iron  and 
sulphur  seem  to  be  present  in  about  equal  amounts  except  in 
sheep,  where  iron  predominates. 


SECTION  VI. 


PROTEIN   IN  PLANTS  AND   ANIMALS. 

Protein  (nitrogenous  compounds),  includes  all  compounds  of 
the  plant  and  animal  body  containing  nitrogen.  Protein  is  made 
up  of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen ;  generally  sulphur ; 
sometimes  phosphorus ;  and  in  a  few  cases  iron.  About  16  per 
cent,  of  the  protein  is  nitrogen.  Protein  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  constituent  to  consider  in  the  feeding  of  animals. 

The  compounds  of  protein  are  classified  by  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  as 
follows : 


Protein, 
Total  nitrogen 
compounds 


Proteids 


Non-proteids 


I    Albuminoids 


|    Collagens  or 
|    gelatinoids 


Extractives 
amides,amido 
acids,  etc. 


Simple 


Modified 


f  Albumins 
1  Globulins 
i.  and  allies 

f   Derived 
\  Compound 


Protein  in  the  Plant. — Protein  is  found  in  the  plant  as  al- 
buminoids and  amides.  The  albuminoids  are  represented  as  leg- 
umin,  the  nitrogenous  compound  of  legumes  (peas,  bean,  alfalfa, 
clover,  etc.),  as  gluten  of  the  wheat  grain,  and  as  vegetable 
albumen  resembling  white  of  egg,  which  is  found  in  the  juices 
of  plants.  Crude  gluten  may  be  obtained  by  washing  dough  of 
wheat  flour  to  a  sticky  mass.  Most  of  the  protein  of  feed  stuffs 
is  present  as  albuminoids.  Amides  are  soluble  in  water  and  are 
considered  more  abundant  in  young  plants  and  growing  parts  of 
plants.  It  is  believed  that  the  function  of  amides  is  to  transfer 
nitrogen  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another.  The  nitrogen  of 
roots,  tubers,  and  cane  molasses  is  more  largely  made  up  of 
amides  than  in  other  feeds.  The  grains  and  seeds  contain  less 
of  such  nitrogen  compounds  than  other  feeding  stuffs.  The 
flesh  forming  function  of  amides  is  doubtful  and  so  the  protein 
obtained  from  roots,  tubers  and  cane  molasses  is  not  considered 
as  valuable  as  that  from  grains  and  seeds. 


PROTEIN  IN  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


PROTEIN  IN  PLANTS 


Protein 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

Protein 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

GRAIN 

12.4 

9-3 

ii.  8 
11.9 

18.4 

20.8 
22.6 

34-0 

14-3 
14.4 
15-2 
12.3 

10.9 
IO.6 
II.  O 
10.5 

10.3 

14.8 
9.2 

10.8 

8.4 
11.9 
9.6 
15-3 

STRAW 

Oat 

4.0 
5-9 

3-° 
3-4 

i.i 

I.O 
I.O 

i.i 

7.8 
7.o 
8.1 
5-9 

9.2 
,      12.0 

7-1 
9.6 

90.9 
88.6 
78.9 
90.5 

21.2 
20.0 

9-9 

13.2 

Rice                    •  • 

Oat** 

R  ve 

Wheat 

wheat  

SEEDS 
Cotton  

ROOTS  &  TUBERS 
Beet  (mangel).. 
Carrot  

Flax  

Irish  potato  

LEGUMINOUS  HAY 

Alfaifo 

GRASS  HAY 
Kentucky  blue.. 
Meadow  fescue  • 
Orchard    • 

Crimson  clover  .  . 

From  the  above  results  we  can  see  that  the  protein  in  seeds 
is  greater  than  in  straws.  In  the  woody  or  older  parts  of  the 
plant  very  little  protein  is  found.  The  legumes  are  richer  in 
protein  than  the  grasses.  Grass  hay  and  straw  contain  much 
more  protein  than  roots.  The  protein  in  grains  is  found  largely 
in  the  germ  and  that  portion  closely  surrounding  it. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PROTEIN  IN  THE  CORN  PLANT 


Protein 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

lu-o 

c  8 

O'° 

a  8 

-1 

y.o 

2      A 

1U.  / 

Qorn  (  whole  plant  )  

A  8 

JU.  / 

Com  leaves  

ii  8 

o^-* 
8  Q 

3       A 

8? 

•  4 

This  distribution  of  protein  in  corn  is  interesting.  The  bran 
is  the  outer  covering  of  the  corn  grain  and  is  for  protecting  the 
seed,  and  is  therefore  low  in  protein.  The  outer  coverings  of 
other  seeds  as  oats,  rice,  cotton,  etc.  also  contain  less  protein  than 
the  other  parts  of  the  seed.  The  germ,  or  embryo  plant,  is  com- 
paratively rich  in  protein  for  it  is  this  part  of  the  seed  that  must 


24         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


be  used  for  reproducing  the  plant.  The  leaves  or  growing  parts, 
are  rich  in  protein  while  the  shucks,  which  protect  the  grain,  are 
low  in  nitrogenous  substances.  The  distribution  of  protein  in 
corn  is  similar  to  the  distribution  of  protein  in  other  plants. 

Protein  in  Animals. — Protein  in  animals  is  present  as  album- 
inoids, gelatinoids,  and  as  horny  substances. 

Albuminoids  are  found  in  all  the  healthy  organs  and  fluids  of 
the  animal  body  except  the  urine.  The  principal  albuminoids 
are  the  albumen,  such  as  white  of  egg,  which  is  found  in  most 
animal  fluids,  the  casein  of  milk,  the  fibrin  of  meat,  and  the 
fibrin  of  blood  (present  in  the  clotting  of  blood). 

Gelatinoids. — The  nitrogenous  substances  of  bone  and  cartilage 
are  gelatinoids.  We  have  all  no  doubt  noticed  in  the  cooking 
of  bones  and  tendons,  the  familiar  substance  gelatine  which  is 
derived  from  the  gelatinoids  perhaps  by  taking  on  water.  The 
connective  tissue,  ligaments  and  the  skin  contain  gelatinoids. 

Horny  Substances. — The  protein  in  the  hair,  horns,  hoofs,  wool, 
etc.  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  albuminoids  and  gelatinoids. 
PER  CENT.  PROTEIN  IN  ANIMAL  BODIES. l 


Ox 

Calf 

Sheep 

L,amb 

Pig 

Half 
fat 

Fat 

Fat 

Thin 

Half 
fat 

Fat 

Verv 
fat 

Fat 

Thin 

Fat 

Protein  •  • 

16.6  !    14.5 

15-2 

I4.8 

14.0 

12.2 

10.9 

12.3 

13-7 

10.9 

Live  wt. 

Ibs.... 

1,232 

1.419 

258.8 

97.6 

I05.I 

127.2 

239.4 

84.4 

93-9 

I85 

Age  

4  yrs. 

4  yrs. 

9-5wk 

I  yr. 

3#yrs 

i^yrs 

i^yrs 

/2yr. 

.... 

Thin  animals  contain  more  protein  than  fat  animals  because 
the  protein  is  present  in  lean  meat  in  greater  proportions  than  in 
fatty  tissues. 

There  is  a  greater  per  cent,  of  protein  in  the  animal  body  than 
in  most  plants  or  parts  of  plants. 

Suggestion :  Chop  up  some  meat  and  extract  it  with  cold 
water.  Boil  the  extract  and  note  the  albumin  that  separates  out. 
Treat  this  albumin  with  cold  water  again  and  see  if  it  is  soluble. 
Have  the  students  state  whether  it  is  better  to  soak  meat  in  cold 

1  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  Bui.  201,  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


PROTEIN  IN  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  25 

water  before  cooking  or  to  boil  it  at  once  to  prevent  losses. 
Take  the  white  of  egg  and  cook  it  in  boiling  water  and  note  the 
result.  Chop  up  some  meat  and  extract  it  with  about  a  10  per 
cent,  solution  of  common  salt  and  boil  the  extract.  Are  there 
any  more  albuminoids  extracted  in  this  way  than  with  cold 
water?  Boil  some  fresh  bones  and  obtain  gelatine.  Try  to 
treat  some  wheat  grain  by  extracting  the  starch  with  cold  water 
and  obtain  a  sticky  mass  which  contains  the  gluten  of  the  grain. 


SECTION  VII. 


NITROGEN  FREE  COMPOUNDS. 

The  compounds  we  are  about  to  study  are  made  up  of  the 
elements  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  i.  e.  they  are  free  from 
nitrogen,  and  are  called  the  nitrogen  free  compounds.  These 
compounds  are  nitrogen  free  extract,  carbohydrates,  crude  fiber 
and  fats. 

Nitrogen  Free  Extract. — As  previously  stated  the  compounds 
of  this  group  are  made  up  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 
There  are  a  great  many  substances  with  which  we  are  familiar 
that  come  under  this  group  of  substances,  such  as  starches, 
various  sugars,  vegetable  gums,  and  organic  acids.  The  most 
important  group  of  nitrogen  free  extract  substances  are  the 
carbohydrates  in  which  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  present 
in  the  proportion  of  water,  namely,  two  parts  of  hydrogen  and 
one  of  oxygen.  The  starches  and  sugars  are  the  carbohydrates. 
Potato  starch  and  corn  starch  are  some  of  the  common  starches. 
Examples  of  the  sugars  are,  the  common  white  sugar  (sucrose) 
used  at  the  table  and  corn  syrup  which  sugar  content  is  main- 
ly glucose,  and  manufactured  from  starch.  Various  mixtures  of 
sucrose  and  glucose  prevail  among  the  sugars.  Sucrose  however 
is  the  most  important  sugar  as  it  is  found  in  many  of  our  plants 
as  sugar  cane,  sugar  beet,  sweet  potato,  corn  plant,  sorghum, 
roots  and  some  grasses. 

Vegetable  Gums  are  found  in  beet  pulp,  gum  arabic,  wood 
gum  of  wood  and  straw,  and  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants. 
Most,  if  not  all,  of  our  feed  stuffs  contain  vegetable  gums. 

Organic  Acids  occur  in  fruits,  silage,  and  sour  milk.  Exam- 
ples of  these  acids  are  citric  acid  of  lemons,  acetic  acid  of 
vinegar,  malic  acid  of  apples,  lactic  acid  of  milk,  and  acetic  and 
lactic  acids  of  silage. 

The  nitrogen  free  extract  is  often  termed  carbohydrates  al- 
though from  the  previous  statements  we  know  that  such  practice 
is  not  correct.  The  chemist  determines  nitrogen  free  extract  by 
subtracting  the  sum  of  the  protein,  fats,  crude  fiber,  water  and 
ash  from  100. 


NITROGEN    FREE)    COMPOUNDS 


TABLE  SHOWING  NITROGEN  FREE  EXTRACT  IN  PLANT  SUBSTANCES 


N.  F.  E. 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

N.  F.  E. 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

GRAIN 
Barley  

69.8 
70.4 
59-7 
71.9 

24.7 

55-7 
23.2 
28.8 

24.7 

10.9 
10.6 
II.  0 
10.5 

10.3 
14.8 
9.2 
10.8 

71.1 

STRAW 
Oat  

42.4 
33-7 
46.6 

43-4 

42.7 
36.6 
37-8 
45-o 

17-3 

9.2 
IAO 

7-1 

9.6 

8.4 
9.6 

21.2 
13.2 

78.9 

Oal«; 

R  ve 

Wheat 

^ye  

Wheat 

SEEDS 
Cotton  •            • 

FORAGE  PLANTS 
(hay) 
Alfalfa      

Crimson  clover  . 
Kentucky  blue  .  - 
Timothy  

Flax 

ROOT 

Sweet  potato  .  . 

TUBER 

The  grains  run  high  in  nitrogen  free  extract  due  to  the  large 
amount  of  starch  present.  The  starch  content  also  predominates 
in  the  dry  matter  of  potatoes. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  NITROGEN  FREE  EXTRACT  IN  PARTS  OF  CORN 


N.  F.  E. 

Per  cent. 


Water 
Per  cent. 

10.6 


Corn  grain 70.4 

Corn  bran 62.2  9.1 

Corn  germ 64.0  10.7 

Corncob 54.9  10.7 

Corn  (whole  plant) 37.2  32.2 

Corn  leaves 41.5  8.9 

Corn  shucks 51.6  8.1 

The  grain  of  corn  is  exceedingly  high  in  carbohydrates  (starch) 
and  advantage  of  this  is  taken  in  fattening  animals  which  we 
will  speak  of  later.  The  starch  of  this  grain  is  employed  com- 
mercially in  making  corn  starch  and  corn  syrup. 

Carbohydrates  in  Animals. — Glycogen  which  is  found  in  the 
liver  and  muscles,  and  milk  sugar  found  in  the  milk  of  mammals 
are  the  only  carbohydrates  in  the  animal  body  that  we  know 
of.  The  carbohydrates  of  plants  are  changed  to  fats  in  the 
animal  body.  Carbohydrates  therefore  do  not  occur  in  the  ani- 
mal body  to  such  a  large  extent  as  in  plants. 

Crude  Fiber. — The  woody  parts  of  plants  are  called  crude 
fiber.  Cotton  lint  is  almost  pure  fiber.  Crude  fiber  is  made  up 


28         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


principally  of  the  cellulose  of  which  the  cell  walls  are  mostly 

composed.     It  is  really  the  framework  or  the  structure  of  plants. 

TABLE  SHOWING  CRUDE  FIBER  IN  PLANT  SUBSTANCES 


Fiber 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

Fiber 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

GRAIN 
Buckwheat.  •  •  • 
Corn 

8-7 

2.2 

9-5 
1.7 

44-5 
45-1 
29.7 

41.9 

1.2 

1.6 

12.6 

10.6 

II.O 

10.5 

10.0 

II.  I 

7-3 
9.0 

89.5 
84.0 

STRAW 
Oat  

37.o 
38-6 
38.9 
38-1 

29.0 

20.2 
23.0 
29.0 

0.9 
T.2 

9.2 
12.0 
7-1 

9.6 

8.4 
9.6 

21.2 
13.2 

90.9 
90.5 

"P  ipp 

Oats  

Rve  .  . 

R  VP 

Wheat 

^•ye  

HULLS  (seed 

FORAGE  PLANTS 
(hay) 

Alfalfa 

Buckwheat 
Cotton  seed  •  .  . 
Oat 

Crimson  clover  . 
Kentucky  blue.. 
TMmntVj  v 

"P  Ipp 

LEAVES  AND 
STEMS 
Beet  

ROOTS 

Beet;  

Turnip  

The  fiber  in  the  hulls  or  seed  coats  of  grains  and  seeds  is  much 
higher  than  in  the  grains  and  seeds  from  which  they  are  derived. 
The  leaves  and  stems  of  the  beet  and  turnip  contain  a  great  deal 
more  fiber  than  their  roots.  The  grasses  contain  less  fiber  than 
straws  and  more  than  roots.  Stems  of  plants  usually  contain  a 
comparatively  large  amount  of  fiber.  Old  plants  contain  more 
fiber  than  young  plants  because  the  cell  walls  of  old  plants  are 
thicker  than  in  young  plants. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  FIBER  IN  PARTS  OF  CORN 


Fiber 
Per  cent. 


Corn  grain 2.2 

Corn  bran 12.7 

Corn  germ 4.1 

Corn  cob  ....    30.  i 

Corn  (whole  plant)  • •  •  •  • 20.2 

Corn  leaves 24.7 

Corn  shucks 32.8 

Fats. — These  compounds  are  sometimes  called  ether  extract 
because  they  compose  those  parts  of  the  plant  substance  that  the 
chemist  dissolves  out  with  ether.  The  substances  that  ether  leaches 


Water 
Per  cent. 

10.6 

9-1 
10.7 
10.7 

32.2 

8.9 
8.1 


NITROGEN 


COMPOUNDS 


29 


out  from  plants  are  mainly  fats  or  oils  together  with  waxes, 
gums,  chlorophyll  (green  coloring  matter  of  plants)  and  other 
substances. 

TABLE  SHOWING  FATS  (ETHER  EXTRACT)  IN  PLANT  SUBSTANCES 


Fat 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

Fat 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

GRAIN 
Corn  

5-0 
5-0 
1-7 
2.1 

36.6 

33.7 

39-6 

21.2 

10.6 
II.  0 

n.  6 
10.5 

6.2 

9.2 

7-5 

8.6 

STRAW 
Oat  

2-3 

1.2 

1-7 
i-3 

2.0 

2-9 

2.6 

2.5 

9-2 
7-1 
10.  16 

9- 

8-4 
9-7 
9-9 

13-2 

Oat<5 

"Rvp 

Rve  .  . 

WVieflt 

Wheat 

SEEDS 
Cotton  (meats) 

plo-y 

FORAGE  PLANTS 

(hay) 
Alfalfa 

Alsike  clover  .  .  . 
Orchard  grass.  •• 

TMmothv 

Peanut  kernels 
Sunflower 
(whole)    • 

The  grains  contain  more  fat  than  straw  or  hay.  Hay  is  usual- 
ly higher  in  fat  than  straw.  A  certain  class  of  seeds  such  as 
cotton  seed,  peanut,  rape,  sunflower,  and  flax  seed  are  important 
for  their  high  oil  content.  The  oils  from  some  of  these  seeds, 
notably  the  oils  from  cotton  seed  and  flax  seed,  are  expressed 
by  hydraulic  pressure  or  extracted  with  some  solvent,  and  sold 
to  us  as  cotton  seed  oil,  cottolene,  linseed  oil  and  similar  products. 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FATS  (ETHER  EXTRACT)  IN  PARTS  OF  CORN 


Fat 
Per  cent. 


Water 
Per  cent. 


Corn  grain 5.0  10.6 

Corn  bran 5.8  9.1 

Corn  germ 7.4  10.7 

Corn  cob 0.5  10.7 

Corn  (whole  plant) 1.3  32.2 

Corn  leaves 3.3  8.9 

Corn  shucks ...  0.9  8.1 

There  is  quite  a  wide  variation  in  the  fat  content  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  corn  plant. 

Fats  in  Animals. — Examples  of  animal  fats  are  hog  lard,  mut- 
ton suet,  beef  tallow  and  milk  fat.  The  fats  of  animals  are 
different  from  the  fats  of  plants. 


3<3         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PERCENT.  OF  FAT  IN  ANIMALS' 


Calf 

o 

X 

Sh 

eep 

Lamb 

p 

ig 

Degree  of 
fatness 

Fat 

Half 
fat 

Fat 

Lean 

Half 
fat 

Fat 

Extra 
Fat 

Fat 

Lean 

Fat 

Fat  per 
cent.  -. 
Live  wt. 
Ibs  .  .  .  . 
Afyp 

14.8 
258.8 

I9.I 
1,232 

30.1 
1,419 

18.7 
97.6 

23-5 
I05.I 

35-6 

127.2 
T  ^vrs 

45-8 

239-4 
I  3/  vrs 

28.5 

84.4 
i/  vr 

233 
93-9 

42.2 
185 

Ase  

yo  WK 

yi&. 

4  }!=>• 

i  yr. 

O/4  JL° 

x/4  JLS> 

i  ^4  yio. 

/2  yr- 

Animals  contain  a  great  deal  of  fat.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  fat  animals.  As  previously  stated  the  carbohydrates  of  plants 
are  converted  into  fats  in  the  animal  body. 

Suggestion:  An  exhibit  of  vegetable  and  animal  fats,  fiber, 
starches,  and  sugars  should  prove  instructive  to  the  student. 
Purchase  a  dilute  solution  of  tincture  of  iodine  from  the  drug  store 
and  put  a  drop  of  this  on  some  broken  kernels  of  corn  and 
sliced  potatoes.  Note  the  blue  color  due  to  the  presence  of 
starch.  A  dilute  solution  of  iodine  is  necessary  to  procure  a 
delicate  reaction. 

1  Lawes  and  Gilbert. 


SECTION  VIII. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  ANIMALS. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  become  familiar  with  the 
compounds  that  are  contained  in  feed  stuffs  and  animal  bodies. 
We  learned  that  the  plant  substances  are  changed  to  form  body 
tissue,  bones,  blood,  etc.  by  the  animal.  Let  us  now  consider  the 
animal  body  composition,  or  the  proportions  of  the  compounds 
in  the  animal  body,  to  find  out  the  food  requirements,  the  differ- 
ences in  young  and  mature  animals,  lean  and  fat  animals,  species, 
increase  and  nature  of  increase  during  growth  and  fattening, 
and  the  relation  of  the  ingredients  of  plants  to  the  stored  up 
materials  of  the  animal. 

We  know  that  the  compounds  of  plants  and  animals  are: 

Compounds  of  plants  Compounds  of  animals 

Protein  Protein 

Fat  (ether  extract)  Fat 

Nitrogen  free  extract  Water 

Crude  fiber  Ash  (mineral  matter) 

Water 

Ash  (mineral  matter) 

Or  we  may  express  animal  body  composition  as: 


Dry  Matter.  —  It  is  evident  that  there  are  many  compounds 
somewhat  similar  in  plant  and  animal  life,  but  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  the  proportions  of  the  compounds  in  the  plant  and 
the  animal.  The  dry  matter  of  plants  is  made  up  principally  of 
carbohydrates  and  crude  fiber,  but  in  the  animal  carbohydrates 
are  present  in  such  small  amounts  as  to  be  disregarded  in  stat- 
ing animal  body  composition  and  crude  fiber  is  not  found  in  the 
animal  body.  The  dry  matter  of  the  animal  body  is  mostly  fats. 
The  percentages  of  fats  and  protein  in  animals  are  much  greater 
than  in  most  plant  substances. 

Composition  of  Farm  Animals.  —  The  most  valuable  experiments 
that  have  been  conducted  on  animal  body  composition  are  those 


32         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

of  Lawes  and  Gilbert.  These  investigators  analyzed  the  whole 
bodies  of  ten  animals  of  different  ages,  degrees  of  fatness  and 
species.  The  results  of  these  investigations  are  included  in  the 
table  on  page  33. 

Water. — As  already  stated,  the  animal  body  contains  a  great 
deal  of  water,  but  perhaps  many  will  be  surprised  to  find  that 
there  is  so  much  of  this  constituent  in  the  animal.  The  water 
is  present  in  the  free  state  in  the  tissues  and  blood,  and  generally 
represents  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  Young 
animals  contain  more  water  than  mature  animals,  as  is  shown 
in  the  water  content  of  the  calf  and  the  ox.  Active  cells  in 
animals  contain  more  water  than  do  the  older  or  less  active  cells 
and  this  may  account  for  the  larger  percentage  of  water  found 
in  young  animals.  It  is  also  true  that  lean  animals  contain 
more  water  than  fat  animals,  and  the  condition  or  degree  of  fat- 
ness influences  the  percentage  of  water  in  the  animal  body.  The 
lean  sheep  contains  13.9  per  cent,  more  water  than  the  fat  sheep; 
the  fat  sheep,  8.2  per  cent,  more  than  the  extra  fat  sheep;  the 
half- fat  ox,  6  per  cent,  more  than  the  fat  ox;  and  the  lean  pig, 
13.8  per  cent,  more  than  the  fat  pig.  In  fattening,  animals  store 
up  fat,  and  the  fatty  substances  do  not  replace  the  water,  but  an 
increase  in  fat  in  the  animal  body  means  an  increase  in  dry  mat- 
ter. This  accounts  for  fat  animals  containing  less  water  than 
lean  animals.  It  also  explains  why  there  is  more  meat  in  the 
fat  animal  than  in  the  lean  animal,  and  hence  the  preference  given 
the  fat  animal  at  the  markets. 

Ash. — There  is  not  a  comparatively  large  amount  of  mineral 
matter  in  the  animal  body.  As  the  animal  matures  there  seems 
to  be  a  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  mineral  matter.  The  half- 
fat  ox  contains  0.74  per  cent,  more  ash  than  the  fat  ox ;  the  lean 
sheep,  0.35  per  cent,  more  than  the  fat  sheep ;  and  the  lean  pig, 
i. 02  per  cent,  more  than  the  fat  pig.  There  is  also  a  variation  of 
mineral  matter  in  the  species.  The  ox  contains  more  mineral 
matter  than  the  sheep  and  the  sheep  more  than  the  pig".  During 
fattening  there  is  a  difference  in  the  increase  of  mineral  matter 
in  the  different  animals ;  pigs  do  not  add  as  great  a  percentage 
as  oxen,  and  oxen  do  not  add  as  much  as  sheep. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FARM   ANIMALS 


33 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ENTIRE  BODIES,  THE  CARCASSES 
AND  THE  OFFAL  OF  TEN  ANIMALS  OF  DIFFERENT  DESCRIP- 
TIONS, OR  IN  DIFFERENT  CONDITIONS  OF  MATURITY 

—  LAWKS   AND   GILBERT.1 


Description  of  animal 

Mineral  matter  (ash) 

Nitrogenous  substance 
(protein) 

I 

Total  dry  matter 

Water 

Contents  of  stomach 
and  intestines  (in 
moist  state) 

ENTIRE  ANIMAL  (fasted  live  wt.) 
Fat  calf  

3-80 
4.66 

3.92 
2.94 
3.16 

3-!7 
2.81 
2.90 
2.67 
1.65 
3-J7 

4.48 
5-56 
4.56 
3-63 
4-36 
4.13 
3-45 
2-77 
2.57 
1.40 

3-69 

3-41 
4-05 
3-40 

2.45 
2.19 
2.72 
2.32 
3.64 
3-07 
2.97 
3.02 

15-2 
16.6 

H.5 
12.3 
14.8 
14.0 

12.2 
IO.9 

13-7 
10.9 

13-5 

16.6 

17.8 
15.0 
10.9 

14-5 
14.9 

u-5 
9.1 
14.0 
10.5 
13-5 

17.1 
20.  6 

17.5 
18.9 
18.0 
17.7 
16.1 
16.8 
14.0 
14.8 
17.2 

14.8 
19.1 
30.1 
28.5 
18.7 
23-5 
35.6 
45-8 

23.3 
42.2 
28.2 

16.6 

22.6 

34-8 

36-9 
23.8 

3i.3 
454 
55-1 
28.1 

49-5 
344 

14.6 

2'7 

26.3 

20.  i 

16.1 
18.5 
26.4 

34-5 
15.0 

22.8 
21.0 

33-8 
40.3 
48.5 
43-7 
36.7 
40.7 
50.6 
59-6 
39-7 
54-7 
44-9 

37-7 
46.0 

544 
51-4 
42-7 
5°-3 
60.3 
67.0 

44-7 
61.4 
51.6 

35.1 
40.4 
47-2 
4L5 
36.3 
38-9 
44.8 

54-9 
32.1 
40.6 
41.2 

63.0 
5L5 
45-5 
47-8 

57-3 
50.2 

43-4 
35-2 
55-1 
41.3 
49.0 

62.3 
54-0 
45.6 
48.6 
57.3 
49-7 
39-7 
33-0 
55-3 
38.6 

48.4 

64.9 
59-6 
52.8 
58.5 
63.7 
61.1 
55-2 
45-1 
67.9 

59-4 
58.8 

3-17 
8.19 

5.98 
8.54 
6.00 

9.05 

6.02 

5.18 

5.22 

3.97 
6.13 

Half-fat  ox  

Fat  ox  

Half-fat  old  sheep  

Extra  fat  sheep  

Means  of  all  

CARCASS 
Fat  calf  

Half-fat  ox  

Half-fat  old  sheep  

Fat  sheep  

Means  of  all  

OFFAL  (excluding  contents  of 
stomachs  and  intestines) 
Fat  calf  

Half-fat  ox  

Half-fat  old  sheep  

1  Bui.  22,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


34         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Protein  is  greater  in  lean  animals  than  in  those  that  are  fat. 
The  half-fat  ox  has  2.1  per  cent,  more  protein  than  the  fat  ox; 
the  lean  sheep  2.6  per  cent,  more  than  the  fat  sheep;  and  the 
lean  pig,  2.8  per  cent,  more  than  the  fat  pig.  There  is  more 
protein  in  the  ox  than  in  the  sheep  and  more  in  the  sheep  than  in 
the  pig. 

Fat. — The  fat  calf  has  14.8  pounds  of  fat  per  100  pounds 
live  weight;  the  half- fat  ox  19.1  pounds,  the  fat  ox  30.1  pounds, 
a  difference  of  15.3  pounds  between  the  fat  calf  and  the  fat  ox. 
The  lean  sheep  contains  18.7  pounds  of  fat  per  100  pounds  live 
weight,  the  fat  sheep  35.6  pounds  and  the  extra  fat  sheep  45.8 
pounds,  or  a  difference  of  27.1  pounds  between  the  lean  and 
extra  fat  sheep.  The  lean  pig  contains  23.3  pounds  of  fat 
per  100  pounds  live  weight  and  the  fat  pig  42.2  pounds,  a 
difference  of  18.9  pounds.  It  is  shown  that  there  is  2.5  per 
cent,  more  fat  than  protein  in  the  half- fat  ox  and  15.6  per  cent, 
more  in  the  fat  ox;  in  the  lean  sheep  3.9  per  cent,  more  and  in 
the  fat  sheep  23.4  per  cent,  more;  in  the  lean  pig  9.6  per  cent, 
more  and  in  the  fat  pig  31.3  per  cent.  more. 

Nature  of  Grain  in  Fattening. — The  findings  of  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert show  that  an  increase  in  fattening  means  a  great  increase  in1, 
the  dry  matter.  The  increase  of  fat  is  greater  than  protein.  In 
fattening  oxen  the  increase  of  live  weight  will  approximate  i^ 
per  cent,  mineral  matter,  7  to  8  per  cent,  of  protein,  60  to  65  per 
cent,  of  fat  and  70  to  75  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

Should  oxen  be  fattened  while  young  and  growing  the  in- 
crease may  amount  to  about  2j4  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter, 
about  10  per  cent,  of  protein  and  about  50  to  5.5  per  cent,  of  fat. 
The  fattening  increase  of  mature  animals  amounts  to  about  three 
quarters  dry  matter  and  one  quarter  water,  while  for  young 
growing  animals  two-thirds  dry  matter  and  one-third  water 
represents  the  proportion  of  increase. 

The  increase  for  sheep  amounts  to  about  2  per  cent,  mineral 
matter,  about  7  per  cent,  protein,  from  65  to  70  per  cent,  fat,  and 
75  to  80  per  cent,  dry  matter.  The  increase  of  mineral  matter 
of  sheep  is  greater  than  for  mature  oxen  because  of  the  growth 
of  wool.  In  the  final  period  of  excessive  fattening  of  sheep  the 


COMPOSITION  OF  FARM   ANIMALS  35 

increase  may  reach  70  to  75  per  cent,  of  fat  and  80  to  85  per 
cent,  of  dry  matter. 

The  increase  for  highly  fattened  pigs  amounts  to  6]/2  to  7^2 
per  cent,  protein,  65  to  70  per  cent,  fat  and  70  to  75  per  cent. 
dry  matter.  The  increase  in  mineral  matter  is  so  small  as  to 
be  disregarded.  If  the  pig  is  not  highly  fattened  the  increase 
will  contain  more  protein  and  water  and  less  fat  and  dry  matter. 


SECTION  IX. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  DIGESTION.1 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  learned  that  the  animals'  food 
constitutes  that  which  they  eat  and  drink.  We  will  now  discuss 
the  way  the  animal  appropriates  this  food  for  nourishing  its 
body  and  the  processes  necessary  to  prepare  the  food  for  diges- 
tion and  assimilation. 

Digestion. — This  may  be  defined  as  the  physiological  process 
of  preparing  food  or  changing  it  into  soluble  substances  that 
may  be  absorbed,  or  taken  into  the  circulation. 

Assimilation. — After  the  food  is  digested  it  is  made  use  o'f 
by  the  cells  of  the  several  tissues  of  the  body.  The  acquiring 
of  the  digested  food  for  building  up  the  several  parts  of  the 
body  is  called  assimilation. 

Ferments. — In  the  processes  of  digestion  foods  are  subjected 
to  changes  which  are  destructive  and  beneficial.  Before  taking 
up  the  several  steps  of  digestion  let  us  consider  these  changes 
which  are  caused  by  ferments. 

A  ferment  is  something  which  produces  fermentation.  When) 
it  comes  in  contact  with  any  feed  stuff,  new  compounds  are 
formed  and  usually  gas  is  given  off.  Examples  of  fermenta- 
tion are;  spoiling  of  butter,  souring  of  milk,  spoiling  of  fruits 
in  jars,  spoiling  of  canned  vegetables,  and  the  converting  of 
apple  juice  to  cider. 

Ferments  not  Beneficial  to  Digestion. — The  above  changes  are 
all  due  to  the  action  of  minute  single  celled  organisms  called 
bacteria.  These  bacteria  are  present  in  very  large  numbers  in 
the  alimentary  canal  and  attack  the  food  compounds,  giving  off 
water,  marsh  gas,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
and  other  gases.  In  other  words  this  kind  of  fermentation  is 
destructive  and  is  always  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  food  nutri- 
ents. 

Ferments  Beneficial  to  Digestion. — There  is  another  class  of 
ferments  which  are  chemical  compounds  and  have  the  power 
to  change  the  composition  of  certain  other  substances  simply  by 

1  Adapted  from  Smith's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Physiology  and  from  Dalrymple. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    DIGESTION 


37 


contact.  The  dissolving  of  starch,  which  is  insoluble  in  water, 
by  malt  is  an  illustration  of  this  kind  of  ferment.  It  is  this  class 
of  ferments  upon  which  the  digestion  of  the  food  depends. 
These  ferments  change  the  insoluble  compounds  into  compounds 
which  are  readily  absorbed  into  the  blood.  All  the  changes  of 
food  in  digestion  are  probably  brought  about  by  the  action  of 
ferments  or  dilute  acids.  Examples  of  these  ferments  are: 


Solution 

Saliva 

Gastric 
Juice 


Bile 


Ferment 
Ptyalin 
Pepsin  and 
Hydrochloric 
Acid 
Rennin 

Glycocholic 
Acid 
Taurocholic 
Acid 

Medium 
Alkaline 

Acid 
Acid 

Alkaline 
Alkaline 

Acts  on 
Starch 


Forms 
Maltose 


Proteids         Peptones 
Coagulates    Milk 

Emulsifies      Fats 

Accelerates    Action  of  the 
bowels 


Pancreatic  J 
Juice           | 

Trypsin 
Amylopsin 
Steapsin 

Alkaline 
Alkaline 
Alkaline 

Proteids 
Starch 
Emulsifies 

Peptones 
Sugar 
Fats 

Intestinal1 

Intestinal 

Alkaline 

All  carbo- 

Glucose 

Juice 

Juice 

hydrates 
Proteids 
Emulsifies 

Peptones 
Fats 

The  several  steps  of  digestion  follow : 

i.  Prehension,  or  conveying  food  to  the  mouth,  differs  ac- 
cording to  species.  The  horse  uses  the  lips  a  great  deal  in 
gathering  food.  In  feeding  in  the  stall,  the  horse  collects  the 
food  with  the  lips  and  when  grazing,  cuts  off  the  grass  with  the 
teeth,  drawing  the  lips  back  so  as  to  bite  close  to  the  ground. 

The  Ox  has  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  and  it  seizes  food  with 
the  tongue.  In  grazing  the  tongue  is  extended  and  curled 
around  the  grass,  which  is  thus  drawn  into  the  mouth  and  taken 
off  by  a  swinging  motion  of  the  head  as  it  passes  between  the 
incisor  teeth  (teeth  of  the  lower  jaw)  and  the  dental  pad  (pad 
of  the  upper  jaw). 

The  Sheep  has  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  It  has  a  divided 
upper  lip  which  permits  the  use  of  the  teeth  and  dental  pad  in 
grazing.  Because  of  this  divided  lip  the  sheep  can  gather  very 

1  Ellenberger  (Herbivora). 


38         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

short  grass  and  live  on  pasture  where  the  horse  and  ox  would 
starve.  The  sheep  like  the  horse  uses  the  lips  in  gathering  food. 

The  Hog  uses  the  lower  lip  and  teeth  in  prehending  food. 

Drinking, — In  drinking,  the  animal  uses  the  tongue  as  a  piston 
and  pumps  up  the  water  to  the  mouth ;  the  lips  are  closed  except 
a  small  opening,  which  permits  the  entrance  of  the  liquid,  which 
is  placed  under  the  liquid.  The  horse  and  ox  use  this  method  in 
drinking.  The  horse  extends  its  head  while  drinking  and  draws 
the  ears  forward  at  each  swallow  and  back  between  swallows. 

The  dog  drinks  with  the  tongue — laps  water — by  curling  the 
tongue  into  the  shape  of  a  spoon. 

Animals  suck  by  forming  a  vacuum  in  the  mouth  when  the 
lips  are  closed,  increasing  the  size  of  the  tongue  behind  and 
diminishing  it  in  front,  the  clorsum  being  applied  to  the  roof  of 
the  mouth. 

2.  Mastication  or   chewing  is   performed  between  the   molar 
teeth,  the  large  back  teeth,  or  grinders,  which  reduce  and  grind 
the  food.     The  lips,  cheeks  and  tongue  help  to  place  and  hold 
the  food  for  grinding.     The  movements  which  the  jaws  undergo) 
are  somewhat  different  in  species  of  animals.     In  the  horse  and 
ox  the  movement  is  not  only  up  and  down,  but  lateral.     The 
herbivora  (horse,  sheep,  goat  and  ox)  can  only  masticate  (chew) 
on  one  side  at  a  time;  when  this  side  gets  tired  the  process  is 
reversed.     The  upper  jaw   of  the  herbivora  is  wider  than  the 
lower.     It  takes  the  horse  from  five  to  ten  minutes  to  eat  one 
pound  of  corn  and  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  to  eat  one  pound  of 
hay.     In  the  ox  mastication  is   imperfectly  performed  to   start 
with,  but  the  material  is  eventually  brought  back  to  the  mouth 
by  the  process  of  rumination  and  undergoes  thorough  re-mastica- 
tion. 

3.  Insalivation. — While  the  food  is  chewed  and  reduced,  small 
ducts  and  tubes  on  the  sides  of  the  mouth  pour  out  a  solution 
called   saliva   from   the   salivary   glands.     This    saliva   performs 
a  chemical  action  on  the  food  by  converting  the  insoluble  starch 
into   soluble    sugar     (maltose),     and   otherwise    prepares   these 
carbohydrates  for  later  digestion  in  the  intestines,  etc.     Ptyalin, 
the  ferment  of  saliva,  does  not  change  all  the  starch  in  the  food 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    DIGESTION  39 

to  sugar  in  the  mouth,  but  it  acts  upon  the  starch  in  the 
oesophagus  and  until  it  reaches  the  true  stomach  when  the  con- 
version is  arrested  until  the  food  reaches  the  small  intestine. 
The  ferments  which  change  starch  to  sugar  are  alkaline  and  the 
gastric  juice  being  acid,  stops  this  conversion  until  the  food 
reaches  the  small  intestine  where  the  alkaline  ferment  amylopsin 
completes  this  change  of  starch  to  sugar. 

Colin  places  the  daily  secretion  of  saliva  in  the  horse  at  84 
pounds  and  in  the  ox  at  112  pounds,  though  the  amount  will 
depend  upon  the  dryness  of '  the  food  consumed.  Hay  absorbs 
more  than  four  times  its  weight  of  saliva,  oats  rather  more  than 
their  own  weight,  and  green  fodder  half  its  own  weight. 

4.  Deglutition  or  swallowing.     This  is  brought  about  by  means 
of  the  tongue,  some  of  the  muscles  of  the  throat  and  by  the 
wave-like  contractions  of  the  oesophagus    (gullet),   which   ends 
at  the  stomach. 

Some  animals  prepare  their  food  into  round  masses,  called 
boluses,  before  swallowing.  The  boluses  of  the  ox  are  about 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter;  those  of  the  horse  are  one-half 
that  size. 

The  construction  of  the  oesophagus  of  the  horse  is  different 
from  that  of  the  ox  and  sheep.  It  is  very  narrow  and  composed 
of  a  thick,  rigid  muscular  coat  at  its  termination.  The  oesopha- 
gus of  the  ox  and  sheep  is  coated  with  a  thin  muscular  coat 
which  stretches  easily  and  because  of  this,  these  animals  can 
swallow  bulky  material  that  would  choke  the  horse. 

5.  Stomachal  Digestion  or  chymification.     This  step  refers  to 
the  food  materials  being  converted  into  chyme,  which  is  a  liquid, 
or    semi-liquid,    mass   into   which   the    food   in    the   stomach   is 
changed  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  aided  by  the  churning 
motion  produced  by  the  muscular  wall  of  that  organ.     When 
in  the  stomach  the  food  is   not  only   rendered  more  liquid  or 
poultaceous  by  the  gastric  juice  as  a  whole,  but,  by  the  chemical1 
ferment,   pepsin,   the   insoluble  protein   is   changed   into   soluble 
peptone. 

The  stomach  of  the  ox  always  has  food  in  it ;  that  of  the  horse 


40         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


is  too  small  even  to  hold  one  feed,  so  that  the  first  food  eaten  is 
generally  passed  to  the  small  intestine  before  the  meal  is  finished. 

LENGTH  OF  INTESTINES  AND  CAPACITY  OF  STOMACHS  OF  FARM 


Length  of  intestine 

Capacity  of  stomach  and  intestine 

Animal 

Average  length 

Ratio  between  large 
and  small  intestine 

Ratio  between  body 
length  and  small 
intestine 

Average  capacity 

• 

i* 

o» 

.2 

cti 

M 

HORSE 
Small  intestine  . 
Large  intestine  •  • 

Feet 

73-6 
24-5 

3 
[ 

1:12 

Horse 

19.0 
67.4 
137.4 

8.5 
30.2 

61.3 

Small  intestine  .... 
Large  intestine  .... 

223.8 

IOO.O 

Ox 

Small  intestine.. 
Large  intestine  •  • 

150.9 
36.3 

4.1 

i 

1:20 

Ox 

266.9 
69.7 
40.1 

70.8 

185 

10.7 

Small  intestine  .... 
Large  intestine  .... 

376.7 

IOO.O 

SHEEP 
Small  intestine  •  • 
Large  intestine  •  • 

85.9 
21.4 

4 
i 

1:27 

SHEEP 

24.7 

2.1 
I.O 

3-5 
9-5 
5-9 

46.7 

52.9 

4-5 

2.O 

7-5 
20.4 
12.7 

Small  intestine.    ••• 
Large  intestine..    .  . 

Total  capacity  

IOO.O 

HOG 
Small  intestine  •  • 
Large  intestine  .  . 

6o.O 
I7.I 

3-5 

i 

1:14 

HOG 

8-5 
9-7 
10.8 

29.2 

33-5 
37-3 

Small  intestine  
Large  intestine  

Total  capacity  

29.0 

IOO.O 

It  generally  requires  from  three  to  four  days  for  the  food  to 
pass  through  the  digestive  tract  of  animals. 

1  Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    DIGESTION  4! 

Stomach  of  the  Ox  and  Sheep. — The  stomachs  of  the  horse  and 
pig  are  simple  and  have  one  compartment  while  those  of  the 
ox  and  sheep  are  more  complicated  and  have  four  compartments 
namely,  the  first  compartment  (rumen  or  paunch)  ;  the  second 
compartment  (honeycomb  or  reticulum)  ;  the  third  compartment 


Fig.  i.— Stomach  of  tha  horse. 
A— cardiac  end  of  the  oesophagus;    B — pyloric  end  and  ring — after  Fleming, 

(omasum  or  manyplies)  ;  and  the  fourth  compartment  (abom- 
asum  or  rennet,  or  true  digestive  compartment).  This  last  com- 
partment corresponds  to  the  stomach  of  the  horse  and  pig. 

Rumination. — In  the  ruminating  animal,  such  as  the  ox,  sheep 
and  goat,  which  "chew  the  cud,"  the  food,  in  a  somewhat  im>- 
perfectly  masticated  condition,  passes  into  the  large  first  com- 
partment of  the  stomach,  and  then  into  the  second.     Then  by  a 
4 


42         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


special  arrangement  of  parts,  it  is  forced  back  into  the  oesophagus 
and  into  the  mouth  for  final  preparation  by  the  teeth  and  the 
saliva.  When  swallowed  a  second  time,  the  mouthful  of  food 
passes  into  the  third  compartment  and  onto  the  fourth  for  final 
stomachal  digestion.  The  first  three  compartments  prepare  the 


Fig.  2. — Stomach  of  the  ox,  seen  on  its  right  upper  face,  the  abomasum  being  depressed. 

A—rumen,   left  hemisphere;    B — rumen,   right   hemisphere;    C — termination  of 

the  oesophagus;  D— reticulum;  E— omasum;  F— abomasum— after  Fleming. 

food  for  the  final  digestion  which  takes  place  in  the  fourth  com- 
partment. 

6.  Intestinal  Digestion  or  chylification.  This  step  has  refer- 
ence to  the  food  in  the  small  intestine  being  converted  into  chyle, 
which  is  the  nutritive  materials,  in  liquid  form,  ready  for  ab- 
sorption into  the  circulation.  After  reaching  the  small  intestine, 
the  food  materials  are  again  acted  upon  by  ferments  which  have 
a  somewhat  similar  action  to  those  already  spoken  of  in  connec- 
tion with  the  saliva  and  the  gastric  juice.  These  ferments  are 
chiefly  from  the  pancreas,  or  "sweetbread,"  and  are  conveyed 
to  the  intestine,  as  a  part  of  the  pancreatic  juice,  through  the 
pancreatic  duct  or  tube.  These  ferments  alluded  to  are : 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    DIGESTION  43 

(a)  Amylopsin,  which  changes  the  insoluble  starch  into  soluble 
sugar. 

(b)  Trypsin,    which    converts    insoluble   protein   into   soluble 
peptone. 

(c)  Steapsin,  which  emulsifies  the  fats  and  oils  in  the  food, 
and  renders  them  more  easy  of  absorption  into  the  circulation. 

7.  Absorption. — This  is  the  step  by  which  the  nutrient  ma- 
terials of  the  food,  in  liquid  form,  are  taken  from  the  alimentary 
canal  into  the  circulation  to  be  carried  by  the  blood  to  all  parts 
of  the  body  to  nourish  the  different  tissues.     And  no  food  is 
capable  of  being  absorbed  until  it  has  first  been  rendered  soluble 
by  the  action  of  the  different  ferments. 

Intestinal  absorption  takes  place  through  the  villi  of  the  small 
intestines  into  the  lacteals — small  beginnings  of  the  lymphatic 
system  distributed  to  the  small  intestine — and  through  the  blood- 
vessels into  the  venous  system.  The  nutrients  absorbed  by  the 
bloodvessels  pass  into  the  portal  vein  and  are  conveyed  by  this 
vein  to  the  liver  before  entering  into  the  circulation.  Hence  the 
nutrients  either  pass  through  the  lymphatic  glands  to  the  blood 
or  else  are  conveyed  to  the  liver  for  further  elaboration  before 
entering  the  circulation. 

Fats. — The  fats  are  generally  emulsified  before  being  absorbed. 
The  lacteals  are  considered  as  absorbing  all  the  fats. 

Sugar  formed  in  the  bowel  reaches  the  circulation  through  the 
portal  vein  and  liver.  Some  of  it  in  the  horse  perhaps  finds  its 
way  to  the  lacteals.  We  will  learn  in  the  next  section  that  the 
excess  of  sugar  in  the  blood  is  taken  up  by  the  liver  and  con- 
verted into  starch  (glycogen)  and  doled  out  in  the  form  of  sugar 
to  the  blood  as  required.  Mineral  salts  in  solution  enter  the 
blood  as  do  the  sugars. 

Proteids. — As  already  stated  the  proteids  are  converted  into 
peptones  before  being  absorbed.  It  is  said  that  the  peptones  are 
absorbed  by  the  bloodvessels  of  the  villi,  and  conveyed  by  the 
portal  vein  to  the  liver. 

8.  Circulation. — This  step  is  accomplished  by  the  blood  in  the 
arteries  carrying  the  nutritive  materials,  absorbed  from  the  food, 
to  all  parts  of  the  body. 


44         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

9.  Assimilation. — This   step   is  undertaken  by  the  tissue-cells 
themselves,   selecting   from   the   blood,   or   lymph,   the   nutritive 
elements  required  for  their  maintenance  and  development. 

10.  Defecation. — This  final  step  refers  to  the  casting  off  from 
the  body,  in  the  form  of  excrementitious  matter   (manure),  the 
inert  indigestible  parts  of  the  food.     Besides  containing  the  un- 
digested food,  small  portions  of  the  residues  of  the  juices  em- 
ployed in  digestion  and  other  waste  matters  are  present. 

Suggestion:  Require  the  students  to  make  a  schematic  draw- 
ing showing  the  passage  of  the  food,  the  ferments  and  their 
properties,  and  the  absorption  of  the  nutrients,  in  the  ruminant. 


SECTION    X. 


THE  CIRCULATION  OF  DIGESTED  FOOD.1 

The  Blood. — After  the  food  is  digested  it  is  absorbed  and 
enters  into  the  blood.  The  special  functions  of  the  blood  are  to 
nourish  all  the  tissues  of  the  body,  and  thus  aid  their  growth 
and  repair;  to  furnish  material  for  the  purpose  of  the  body 
secretions,  to  supply  the  organism  with  oxygen  without  which 
life  is  impossible,  and  finally  to  convey  from  the  tissues  the 
products  of  their  activity. 

To  enable  all  this  to  be  carried  out  the  blood  is  constantly  in 
circulation,  is  rapidly  renewed,  is  instantaneously  purified  in  the 
lungs,  and  by  means  of  certain  channels  it  is  placed  directly  in 
communication  with  the  nourishing  fluid  absorbed  from  the 
intestines  by  which  it  is  being  constantly  repaired. 

Physical  Characters  of  the  Blood. — The  color  of  the  blood 
varies,  depending  upon  whether  it  is  drawn  from  an  artery  or  a 
vein;  in  the  former  it  is  of  bright  scarlet  color,  while  in  the 
latter  it  is  purplish  red.  Blood  examined  under  the  microscope 
is  found  to  consist  of  an  enormous  number  of  red  disk  shaped 
bodies  termed  corpuscles  floating  in  an  almost  clear  liquid  called 
plasma.  These  corpuscles  are  both  red  and  white;  the  former 
are  the  more  numerous  and  the  latter  the  larger.  These  red 
corpuscles  contain  a  pigment  called  haemoglobin  which  gives 
blood  its  scarlet  color.  The  scarlet  or  purplish  color  of  the 
blood  depends  upon  the  amount  of  oxygen  with  which  the 
haemoglobin  is  combined.  When  haemoglobin  is  charged  with 
oxygen  it  is  called  oxy- hemoglobin. 

Arterial  and  Venous  Blood. — Arterial  blood  contains  more  oxy- 
gen and  less  carbonic  acid  than  venous  blood.  The  dark  color 
of  venous  blood  is  not  due  to  the  greater  amount  of  carbonic 
acid  it  contains,  but  to  the  diminution  of  oxygen  in  the  red  blood 
cells. 

Salts  of  the  blood  are  divided  between  the  plasma  and  the 
corpuscles.  Sodium  chloride  is  the  most  abundant  salt  of  the 
blood,  potassium  chloride  and  sodium  carbonate  follow,  and 

i  Adapted  from  Smith's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Physiology. 


46         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

lastly  phosphates  of  calcium,  magnesium  and  sodium.  Iron  is 
found  in  the  haemoglobin. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Blood. — The  composition  of  the  blood 
as  given  is  from  various  investigators. 

100  parts  venous  blood  of  the  horse  contain: 

Per  cent. 

Corpuscles 32.6 

Plasma 67.4 

The  corpuscles  contain  : 

Water 56.5 

Solid  matter 43.5 

The  plasma  contains  : 

Water •     90.8 

Solids 9.2 

The  solids  consist  of  : 

Fibrin .4 

Albumin 7.5 

Fats i 

Extractives .4 

Soluble  salts - .6 

Insoluble  salts .2 

Average  blood  contains  : 

The  plasma- 
Water  90.0 

Proteids 8.  to  9. 

Fats .1 

Fibrin •         .2  to  .4 

Extractives .4 

Salts .8 

The  corpuscles — 

Water • 56.0 

Solids 43.0 

consisting  of  90  per  cent,  haemoglobin  and  8  per  cent, 
proteids 
Salts i.o 

Taking  the  blood  as  a  whole  the  following  will  approximately 
represent  its  composition. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Water          80. 


Haemoglobin          10. 
Solids          20.     -{    Proteids  8. 

Salts  2. 


I 


CIRCULATION    OF    DIGESTED    FOOD  47 

Proteids  constitute  about  So  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter  of  the 
blood  (haemoglobin  contains  proteids).  Fats  and  sugar  are 
also  present  but  generally  in  small  amounts  in  the  plasma. 

The  Heart. — The  blood  in  the  body  has  to  be  kept  in  constant 
motion,  so  that  the  tissues  which  are  depending  upon  it  for  their 
vitality  may  be  continually  supplied,  and  also  in  order  that  the 
impure  fluid  resulting  from  these  changes,  may  be  rapidly  and 
effectually  conveyed  to  those  organs  where  its  purification  is 
carried  out. 

Compartments  of  the  Heart. — -The  heart  is  the  organ  which 
pumps  the  blood  over  the  body,  not  only  distributing  it  to  the 
tissues  but  forcing  it  on  from  these  back  to  the  heart  again  to 
be  prepared  for  redistribution.  It  may  be  described  as  a  hollow 
muscle  divided  into  two  compartments,  usually  described  as 
right  and  left,  but  in  quadrupeds  really  anterior  and  posterior, 
each  compartment  being  capable  of  division  into  an  upper  or 
auricle,  and  a  lower  or  ventricle.  Opening  into  the  auricles  are 
large  veins  which  convey  the  blood  back  to  the  heart;  from  the 
ventricles  other  vessels,  arteries,  take  their  origin  for  the  con- 
veyance of  blood  from  the  heart ;  the  two  cavities  are  separated  by 
a  valvular  arrangement. 

Pure  and  Impure  Blood. — Into  the  right  heart  the  whole  of  the 
impure  or  venous  blood  in  the  body  is  brought  for  the  purpose 
of  being  purified  in  the  lungs ;  into  the  left  heart  the  arterial  or 
purified  blood  is  brought  back  from  the  lungs  for  distribution 
over  the  body. 

How  the  Nutrients  Enter  the  Blood. — The  absorbed  nutritive 
materials  reach  the  blood  when  it  is  returning  to  the  heart.  The 
blood  is  pumped  out  through  the  cavities  into  the  arteries  to  be 
sent  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  to  furnish  nourishment  for  build- 
ing up  the  tissues. 

Respiration. — The  blood  not  only  performs  the  function  of 
supplying  nutrient  to  the  tissues,  but  it  also  takes  up  a  great 
deal  of  the  waste  matter  of  the  body.  This  elimination  of  waste 
matter  by  the  blood  is  accomplished  to  some  extent  by  means  of 
the  lungs.  The  blood  is  pumped  to  the  lungs  and  renewed  by 
taking  on  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  from  the  inspired  air,  which 


48 


ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


is  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  tissues.  Some  of  the  waste 
matters  such  as  carbonic  acid  gas,  water  and  organic  sub- 
stances, are  passed  off  by  the  blood  through  the  lungs  in  the 
expired  air. 

The  changes  the  air  undergoes  in  the  lungs,  on  a  water  free 
basis,  are  as  follows: 


Oxygen 
Per  cent. 


Inspired  air 20.96 

Expired  air 16.00 


Nitrogen 
Per  cent. 

79.01 
79-60 


Carbonic  acid 
Per  cent. 

•03 
4.40 


The  expired  air  contains  about  5  per  cent,  less  oxygen  and  4 
per  cent,  more  carbonic  acid  than  inspired  air.  Considerable 
water  is  also  given  off  with  the  expired  air. 

The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  elimina- 
tion of  wastes  through  the  lungs  of  farm  animals. 

AMOUNTS  OF  OXYGEN  CONSUMED  AND  CARBONIC  ACID  PRODUCED 
BY  ANIMALS.1 


Ibs. 

Amt.  of  air  in- 
spired in  24  hrs. 
cu.  ft. 

Amt.  of  oxygen 
consumed  in  24 
hrs.,  cu.   ft 

Amt.  of  carbonic 
acid  produced  in 
24  hrs.,  cu.  ft. 

QQO 

•7  777 

TCQ 

151 

Oow 

yyv-» 
QQO 

JJ/0 

2782 

122 

122  T, 

yyu 
]Ac 

1216 

CA     7 

cc   i 

mi 

QQ 

72o 

-12  A. 

D5-  A 
22  6 

eep 

yy 

The  Kidneys  may  be  regarded  as  the  filters  of  the  body,  and 
one  of  the  channels  by  which  waste  and  poisonous  substances  are 
removed. or  filtered  from  the  blood,  and  passed  off  from  the  body 
in  the  urine.  The  amount  of  blood  passing  to  the  kidney  is 
quite  considerable;  it  has  been  calculated  that  in  24  hours,  146 
pounds  of  blood  will  pass  through  the  kidneys  of  a  dog  weigh- 
ing 66  pounds. 

The  Composition  of  Urine  depends  upon  the  class  of  animal;  in 
all  herbivora,  with  certain  minor  differences,  the  urinary  secre- 
tion is  much  the  same. 

1  Boussingault. 


CIRCULATION    OF    DIGESTED    FOOD  49 

COMPOSITION  OF  URINE  OF  SHEEP.' 

Per  cent. 

Water 86.48 

Organic  matter 7.96 

Inorganic  matter 5.56 

The  organic  matter  contained  : 

Urea  2.21 

Hippuric  acid 3. 24 

Ammonia .02 

Other  organic  substances 2.07 

Carbonic  acid ...    .42 

Total 7.96 

The  inorganic  matter  contained  : 

Chlorine i  .05 

Potassium  chloride 1.84 

Potassium 2.08 

Lime .07 

Magnesia .20 

Phosphoric  acid .01 

Sulphuric  acid .24 

Silica .07 


Total 5.56 

There  is  a  considerable  portion  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the 
urine  which  is  present  in  the  urea  and  hippuric  acid.  It  must 
be  understood  that  the  composition  of  the  urine  is  not  always 
constant  and  it  varies  with  the  diet. 

The  Liver  stores  up  an  animal  starch  (carbohydrate)  called 
glycogen.  This  is  absorbed  from  the  intestine  as  sugar  and 
changed  to  starch.  It  is  gradually  passed  out  to  the  blood  as 
sugar  when  required.  The  liver  regulates  the  amount  of  sugar 
which  should  pass  into  the  blood,  so  much  and  no  more  is  ad- 
mitted, the  amount  varying  from  0.05  to  1.5  per  cent. 

The  Skin  gives  off  water  and  other  substances  by  means  of 
the  sweat  glands.  Sweat  exists  in  two  forms:  viz.,  the  in- 
visible vapor  which  is  always  rising  from  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
and  distinguished  as  the  "insensible  perspiration,"  and  the  vis- 
ible material,  which  is  termed  "sweat."  The  insensible  per- 

i  Tereg. 


5O         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 

spiration  of  a  horse  is  probably  about   14  pounds  of  water  per 
24  hours. 

COMPOSITION  OF  HORSES'  SWEAT. 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Water 

94-3776 

{Serum  albumin 

.1049 

Organic  matter 

.5288 

Serum  globulin 

.3273 

Fat 

.0020 

f   Chlorine 

.3300 

|    Lime 

.0940 

|    Magnesia 

.2195 

Ash 

5".  0936 

-j    Phosphoric  acid 
j    Sulphuric  acid 

traces 
traces 

Soda 

.8265 

(   Potash 

I.2I35 

The  mineral  matter  in  sweat  is  very  high  and  exists  princi- 
pally as  soda  and  potash.  The  nitrogenous  matters  (albumin  and 
globulin)  make  up  most  of  the  organic  matter.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  mineral  matter  exceeds  the  organic  matter;  in 
horses  which  have  sweated  freely  the  hair  mats,  due  to  the  nitrog- 
enous substance,  albumin,  and  is  often  covered  with  salty  matter 
due  probably  to  the  salts  excreted.  The  loss  of  albumin  perhaps 
accounts  for  the  weakening  effect  in  animals  produced  by  sweat- 
ing freely. 

Suggestion :  Make  a  schematic  drawing  showing  the  entrance 
of  the  nutrients  into  the  blood,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
its  functions. 


SECTION  XI. 


CONDITIONS   GOVERNING  DIGESTIBILITY. 

There  are  several  factors  which  govern  the  digestibility  of 
foods  and  brief  mention  will  be  given  of  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant factors.  The  data  submitted  in  this  section  are  the 
results  of  investigations  conducted  by  Europeans  and  Ameri- 
cans, and  are  of  value  in  clearing  up  some  points  on  feeding. 

Quantity  of  Food. — It  is  said  by  some  investigators  that  the 
quantity  given,  within  certain  limits,  does  not  affect  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  same  fodder.  That  is  if  the  amount  of  fodder  be 
great  or  small,  provided  the  ration  does  not  exceed  the  capacity 
of  the  animal,  the  fodder  is  digested  in  the  same  proportions. 
Other  investigators  have  found  that  the  larger  the  ration  the 
less  is  the  digestibility.  It  is  probable  that  when  an  animal  re- 
ceives a  large  amount  of  food  the  digestibility  is  less  because 
the  ferments  which  act  upon  food  are  less  concentrated  than 
with  a  small  ration. 

Palatability. — The  animal  like  man  enjoys  a  food  that  is 
palatable  (tastes  good).  Experiments  have  proven  that  palata- 
bility  favors  digestion  by  exciting  the  flow  of  gastric  juice  and 
by  producing  favorable  action  of  the  digestive  organs.  When  a 
food  is  relished,  more  of  it  is  eaten. 

Chemical  Composition. — The  chemical  composition  of  a  food 
influences  its  digestibility.  The  same  food  grown  on  different 
soils,  or  fertilized  differently,  or  grown  at  different  seasons  is 
changed  in  composition  and  digestibility. 

Dry  and  Green  Food. — It  has  been  learned  that  dry  fodder  and 
green  fodder  are  equally  digestible  when  the  dry  fodder  is  care- 
fully cured  and  saved.  If  fermentation  sets  in,  or  some  of  the 
leaves  or  other  parts  of  the  fodder  are  lost,  of  course  the  digesti- 
bility is  lessened. 

In  hay-making,  there  are  often  losses  which  decrease  the  di- 
gestibility of  the  dried  fodders.  These  losses  may  not  be  due 
to  drying  but  to  fermentation,  leaching,  decreases  in  soluble 
materials,  and  breaking  off  of  the  delicate  parts. 


52         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Effect  of  Storage  on  Food.— The  method  of  storing  coarse  fod- 
ders influences  their  digestibility.  Experiments  on  hay  when 
fed  after  recent  harvesting  showed  62  per  cent,  of  its  protein 
digestible,  and  three  months  later  54  per  cent,  of  its  protein  was 
digested.  The  digestibility  of  the  nitrogen  free  extract  and 
crude  fiber  were  practically  the  same  in  both  trials.  Other  ex- 
periments have  proven  that  there  are  losses  in  digestible  protein 
in  storing.  There  are  also  losses  from  breaking  off  of  the  dry, 
tender  portions  which  generally  contain  the  most  protein. 

There  seems  to  be  differences  of  opinion  on  the  effect  of  stor- 
ing fodders  in  the  silo.  Some  experiments  have  been  conducted 
that  showed  losses  of  digestibility  in  preserving  fodders  in  this 
way  and  many  believe  that  field  cured  corn  fodder  is  less  di- 
gestible than  silage  from  the  same  corn.  Of  course  there  are 
many  factors  to  be  considered  in  determining  this  point.  The 
method  of  field  curing,  the  weather,  handling,  and  thoroughness 
of  curing  and  after  preservation  must  be  considered.  In  the 
silo  the  changes  from  fermentation  and  the  neglect  in  siloing, 
sometimes  cause  losses. 

Stage  of  Development.— The  stage  of  growth  of  a  plant  effects 
its  digestibility.  Generally  young  plants  are  more  digestible 
than  the  more  mature,  because  the  fiber  is  more  tender.  The 
protein  of  green  clover  before  flowering  is  more  digestible  than 
that  of  mature  clover.  Hay  cut  at  maturity  is  higher  in 
fiber  than  the  younger  plant  and  less  of  it  is  digested. 

The  corn  plant  seems  to  be  an  exception  to  the  rule.  At 
maturity  when  the  ears  are  fully  ripe,  there  are  more  digestible 
nutrients  than  if  cut  before  the  ears  are  full  grown.  This  is 
perhaps  due  to  the  increase  of  starch  in  the  kernels  of  corn. 

Preparation  of  Food. — It  was  formerly  accepted  that  foods 
treated  by  cooking,  steaming,  scalding,  roasting  and  fermenting 
were  greatly  improved,  and  rendered  more  digestible  and  favor- 
able for  the  production  of  flesh,  milk,  etc.  A  great  deal  of 
attention  was  given  to  this  system  of  feeding  which  entailed 
much  expense,  until  experiments  by  Europeans  and  Americans 
proved  conclusively  that  the  digestibility  of  already  palatable 
foods  was  lessened  by  such  procedure.  At  the  present  time  it 


CONDITIONS   GOVERNING   DIGESTIBILITY 


53 


is  unusual  to  find  feeders  preparing  rations  by  cooking,  steam- 
ing, scalding,  roasting  and  fermenting.  The  investigators  found 
that  the  protein  digestibility  was  most  effected  and  as  this  was 
the  most  expensive  nutrient  the  practice  was  discontinued.  Some- 
times scalding  a  food  improves  its  palatability  and  thus  serves 
to  increase  its  consumption. 

Grinding    has    considerable    influence    on    the   digestibility   of 
certain    foods   when    fed   to   certain   animals.     The   smaller   and 


-A  coach  horse — after  Good. 


harder  the  seed  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  grind  it.  Many  of 
our  seeds  such  as  flax,  barley,  peas,  rye,  sorghum.,  millet,  etc., 
are  so  small  as  to  escape  mastication,  or  too  hard,  or  too  oily  for 
the  digestive  fluids  to  penetrate  and  act  upon.  The  harder  the 


54        ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

outer  covering  of  the  grain  the  more  benefit  is  derived  by  grind- 
ing. 

Imperfect  mastication  is  greater  with  the  horse  or  mule 
than  with  ruminating  animals  and  therefore  grinding  is  more 
necessary  on  certain  foods  when  fed  to  the  horse  or  .mule.  The 
digestibility  of  corn,  wheat  and  oats  is  increased  by  grinding 
when  fed  to  horses  or  mules.  Grain  when  fed  to  calves  should 
be  ground,  and  grinding  improves  the  digestibility  of  grain  for 
swine.  It  is  more  necessary  to  grind  the  grain  fed  to  the  horse 
or  mule  when  at  work  than  when  idle,  because  a  working  horse 
or  mule  has  less  time  to  properly  masticate  food.  Hay,  fodders, 
etc.  are  more  completely  consumed  when  ground.  The  cob 
can  be  utilized  to  advantage  when  the  whole  ear  (corn  and  cob) 
is  finely  ground.  Experiments  have  shown  that  corn  and  cob 
meal  of  this  character  is  of  about  equal  feeding  value  to  pure 
corn  meal.  The  bulkiness  of  corn  and  cob  meal  permits  of 
thorough  action  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

Species  of  Animal. — With  oxen,  cows,  sheep  and  goats  the  di- 
gestibility of  forage  is  about  the  same.  Sheep  digest  clover  hay 
better  than  oxen,  and  oxen  digest  hay  better  than  sheep.  Horses 
and  mules  digest  less  hay  than  the  ruminating  animals,  per- 
haps because  of  poorer  mastication.  The  fat,  carbohydrates 
and  particularly  the  crude  fiber,  are  digested  in  smaller  amounts 
by  horses  and  mules  than  ruminants.  Experiments  show  that 
20-25  per  cent,  less  nitrogen  free  extract  of  hay  is  digested  by 
the  horse  than,  by  ruminants.  The  digestibility  of  grain  is 
about  the  same  with  the  horse  and  ruminants. 

Individuality  and  Age. — Defective  teeth,  differences  in  age, 
and  weakened  digestion  sometimes  cause  differences  in  digesti- 
bility with  animals  of  the  same  species.  Some  claim  that  animals 
of  the  same  species  may  show  differences  in  digestive  power 
ranging  from  2  to  4  per  cent.  Experiments  conducted  on  sheep 
and  steers  have  shown  variations  in  digestibility.  Sometimes 
one  animal  gave  the  highest  digestibility  and  at  other  times 
another.  Young  and  old  animals  of  the  same  species  seem  to 
digest  equal  amounts  of  food. 


CONDITIONS   GOVERNING   DIGESTIBILITY  55 

Work  according  to  Wolff  has  no  influence  in  causing  a  larger 
proportion  of  food  substances  to  be  digested.  Excessive  work 
perhaps  causes  a  slight  decrease  in  the  amount  digested. 

Combinations. — Investigations  show  that  the  combination  of 
the  nutrients  of  a  food  exerts  an  influence  on  its  digestibility. 
Corn  added  to  hay  produces  no  effect  on  the  digestion  of  hay 
unless  it  is  added  in  large  amounts  when  it  decreases  the  di- 
gestibility. Large  amounts  of  carbohydrates  tend  to  reduce  the 
digestibility  of  the  protein  and  crude  fiber  in  hay.  This  de- 
crease is  not  great  until  the  carbohydrates  amount  to  25  to  30 
per  cent,  of  the  total  dry  matter  in  the  hay,  although  it  is  much 
larger  if  straw  is  included  in  the  diet.  This  depression  of  di- 
gestibility can  be  removed  by  adding  more  protein.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  if  carbohydrates  form  10  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter 
of  a  ration,  or  when  roots  or  potatoes  constitute  more  than  15 
per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter,  the  amount  of  digested  substance 
decreases  and  becomes  greater  as  the  carbohydrates  are  in- 
creased. From  these  observations  it  is  apparent  that  the  ex- 
cessive use  of  roots  or  tubers  with  hay  or  fodder,  will  de- 
crease the  digestibility  of  the  ration  unless  the  protein  is  in- 
creased. Experiments  indicate  that  albuminoids  and  oil  added 
to  a  ration  do  not  increase  the  amount  digested  or  do  not  alter 
the  digestibility. 

An  Addition  of  Salt  may  improve  the  flavor  of  a  food  and  thus 
cause  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  food  eaten,  but  it  does  not 
seem  to  be  effectual  in  causing  a  larger  per  cent,  of  digestibility. 

Time  of  Watering  and  Frequency  of  Feeding. — Experiments 
have  been  run  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  the  time  of  watering, 
amount  of  water  and  frequency  O'f  feeding  with  the  results  that 
no  alteration  in  digestion  took  place.  It  should  be  understood 
however  that  the  ruminants  should  be  fed  and  watered  at  least 
twice  a  day  and  horses  and  mules  three  times  a  day  for  the  best 
results. 


SECTION  XII. 


THE  NUTRIENTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS. 

The  previous  sections  explained  the  composition  of  plants  and 
animals,  how  food  is  digested,  absorbed  and  distributed  over  the 
body,  but  we  must  now  learn  about  the  nutrients  and  their 
functions. 

The  Nutrients. — Protein,  fats,  nitrogen  free  extract,  crude  fiber, 
water  and  ash  serve  to  supply  the  needs  of  animals.  Nitrogen 
free  extract  and  crude  fiber  are  classed  as  carbohydrates  and  the 
digestible  amounts  in  both  of  these  plant  substances  are  regarded 
as  of  equal  value  and  supply  the  same  needs  in  the  animal  body. 
Water  can  be  supplied  in  a  cheaper  form  than  in  feed  stuffs. 
Protein,  fats,  carbohydrates  and  ash  therefore  are  considered  as 
the  nutrients.  The  nutrients  and  examples  of  each  are : 

Albumen  (white  of  egg),  legumin,  casein  of  milk,  washed 
Protein  •{    lean    meat,    fibrin   of  blood,  gluten  of  flour,    gelatinoids 

(gelatin),  amides,  globulin,  peptones,  etc. 

Linseed  oil,  cotton  seed  oil,  sunflower  seed  oil,  rape  seed 
Fats  -|    oil,  olive  oil,  peanut  oil,  fat  of  milk,  hog  lard,  mutton 

suet,  beef  tallow,  fish  oil,  etc. 

Starches,    sugars    (milk   sugar,  grape  sugar,  cane  sugar, 
Carbohydrates  ^    beet    sugar,    and    glucose),    glycogen,    gums,    dextrins, 
fiber,  etc. 

{Sodium  carbonate  (baking  powder),  sodium  chloride  (table 
salt),  carbonate  of  lime  (limestone),  magnesium  sulphate 
(Epsom  salts),  sodium  sulphate  (Glauber's  salts),  etc. 

Purpose  of  the  Nutrients. — We  want  to  know  the  purposes 
which  the  nutritive  elements  serve.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be 
said  that  animals  use  food  in  two  ways:  I.  To  build  up  the 
body  and  repair  broken  down  tissues.  2.  To  produce  energy 
to  keep  warm  and  to  supply  that  which  gives  locomotion  or 
movement  to  the  animal  body. 

Functions  of  Ash  or  Mineral  Matter. — All  the  bones  which 
make  up  the  framework  of  the  animal  body  contain  ash  or 
mineral  compounds,  and  the  blood,  tissues  and  the  digestive 
fluids  require  these  substances  but  to  a  less  extent.  Without 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid  it  would  be  impossible  to  build  up  the 
bones  to  support  the  animal  body.  Soda  and  chlorine  are  re- 


THE;  NUTRIENTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS  57 

quired  in  the  processes  of  digestion  in  the  digestive  juices  and 
secretions.  Iron  is  a  necessary  constituent  of  the  blood.  Nature 
has  provided  for  the  very  young  animal  by  furnishing  the 
necessary  mineral  elements  in  milk.  The  young  animal  must 
have  mineral  compounds  to  reach  full  development  and  the 
mature  animal  requires  ash  for  maintaining  body  functions.  It 
is  fortunate  that  nature  has  supplied  sufficient  mineral  matter 
in  most  of  the  feeds  that  animals  live  on  in  this  country.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  furnish  mineral  compounds  when  a  diet  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  grain  (such  as  corn)  or  prepared  foods  con- 
sisting of  parts  of  grain  are  fed.  Animals  cannot  live  without 
mineral  compounds.  Such  substances  as  common  salt,  wood 
ashes,  and  precipitated  chalk  are  sometimes  fed  in  conjunction 
with  other  feeds  to  supply  the  needs  of  growing  animals. 

Functions  of  Protein. — Protein  as  derived  from  plant  sub- 
stances is  the  main  constituent  of  muscles,  horn,  hoof,  hair, 
ligaments,  the  tissues  of  the  organs  used  in  digestive  processes, 
and  the  working  parts  of  the  animal  body.  The  protein  com- 
pounds are  in  reality  the  flesh  formers.  Protein  bodies  repair 
the  broken  down  tissues,  help  form  blood,  and  milk.  When 
animals  are  fed  protein  in  the  right  proportions  they  possess 
vigor  and  look  smart  and  lively.  Without  protein  the  animal 
cannot  live.  Sometimes  protein  can  be  made  to  take  the  place 
of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  but  such  substitution  is  not  practicable, 
as  protein  generally  costs  more  than  fats  and  carbohydrates. 
Protein  hardly  ever  performs  the  functions  of  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates unless  these  latter  nutrients  are  lacking  in  animal's 
food.  The  heat  producing  power  of  protein  is  about  i%  times 
that  of  carbohydrates.  As  a  heat  producer  fat  is  2.25  times 
greater  than  protein.  The  amount  of  body  fat  that  protein  pro- 
duces is  equal  to  one-half  that  which  the  fat  of  plant  substance 
produces. 

Functions  of  Fats  and  Carbohydrates. — These  nutrients  per- 
form the  same  functions  and  supply  the  fuel  for  the  animal  body. 
They  are  heat  producers  and  furnish  the  substances  that  keep 
the  animal  warm.  The  fats  and  the  carbohydrates  also  produce 
fat  in  the  animal  body.  The  fats  are  not  always  changed  in 
5 


58         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

forming  fatty  tissue  but  the  carbohydrates  are  transformed  into 
fats  before  being  stored  as  such.  Therefore  in  the  animal  body 
we  have  four  classes  of  compounds  namely,  protein,  fats,  water 
and  ash.  As  an  energy  and  heat  producer,  fats  have  a  greater 
value  than  carbohydrates.  Fats  are  considered  as  being  2.25 
times  more  valuable  than  carbohydrates  in  this  respect.  In  other 
words,  one  pound  of  fat  is  worth  2.25  times  as  much  as  one 
pound  of  carbohydrates  for  animal  fuel.  One  pound  of  fat  is 
worth  about  two  pounds  of  protein  and  one  and  three  quarters 
pounds  of  carbohydrates  in  the  production  of  animal  fat.  Fats 
and  carbohydrates  cannot  form  body  tissue. 

Summary. — The  nutrients  of  the  animal  body  serve  the  same 
purposes  as  furnished  by  the  nutrients  of  feeds.  When  there 
is  a  deficiency  in  a  diet,  the  protein  and  fats,  or  the  fats  of  the 
animal  body  are  used  to  help  keep  the  animal  going.  A  suffi- 
ciency of  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  a  ration  prevents  protein 
from  being  drawn  upon,  but  a  deficiency  of  carbohydrates  and 
fats  causes  protein  from  the  flesh  of  the  animal  to  be  used. 
Hence  it  is  necessary  that  animals  receive  sufficient  carbohydrates 
and  fats  to  insure  development  and  ample  protection  of  the  body. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS.1 

(Supplies  materials  for  the  bones,  hard  parts  and  framework 
of  the  body.  Helps  build  up  the  blood,  tissues,  secretions 
and  digestive  fluids.  A  necessity  for  all  animal  life. 

f  The   flesh   formers.     Substances  for  the  making  of  lean 

J  meat,    muscles,    skin,    ligaments,    horn,    hair  and   milk. 

I  Sometimes  used  as  fuel  to  give  warmth  and  energy  when 

[  there  are  deficiencies  of  fats  and  carbohydrates. 

J    Furnish  fuel  to  keep  the  animal  warm.     Help  to  produce 
C    energy.     Aid  in  the  production  of  fatty  tissue. 

!  Supply  the  fuel  to  keep  the  animal  warm  and  to  produce 
energy.  Are  transformed  into  fats  for  the  production  of 
fatty  tissue. 

1  The  idea  and  some  of  the  data  in  this  classification  came  from  Bui.  106,  North  Caro- 
lina Experiment  Station. 


THE  NUTRIENTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS  59 

COMPARISON  OF  PROTEIN,  FAT  AND  CARBOHYDRATES 
i  pound  protein  =  i  #  pounds  carbohydrates  for  producing  heat, 
i  pound  fat  =  2.25  pounds  carbohydrates  for  producing  heat. 
I  pound  fat  =  i^  pounds  carbohydrates  for  producing  animal  fat. 
i  pound  fat  =  2  pounds  protein  for  producing  animal  fat. 
Protein  can  perform  the  offices  of  fats  and  carbohydrates. 
Fats  and  carbohydrates  cannot  form  body  tissue  (nitrogenous  substances). 

Suggestion: — Have  the  class  examine  some  live  animal  and 
give  the  distribution  of  the  nutrients  and  their  functions. 


SECTION  XIII. 


FEED  STUFFS  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  ENERGY. 

We  all  know  that  when  work  is  performed  a  certain  amount 
of  effort  is  put  forth.  This  effort  is  proportional  to  the  work 
done  and  energy  is  expended  in  the  performance  of  the  same. 
What  is  true  for  man  in  this  respect  applies  for  animals.  The 
animal  may  be  likened  to  the  steam  engine.  It  moves  itself  and 
also  is  capable  of  moving  other  things.  The  animal  differs  from 
the  steam  engine  in  that  it  never  stops ;  it  is  continually  at  work. 
No  matter  how  quiet  the  animal,  the  blood  is  pumped  by  the 
heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  inspiration  and  expiration  of  air 
to  and  from  the  lungs  is  continuous,  and  the  processes  of  diges- 
tion are  being  performed,  so  that  energy  is  always  being  ex- 
pended by  the  animal. 

Sources  and  Uses  of  Energy. — In  order  that  the  animal  may 
breathe,  walk,  run,  trot,  pull  a  load,  plow,  masticate,  digest  food, 
etc.,  it  must  be  furnished  with  materials  to  enable  it  to  perform 
these  functions.  The  source  of  these  substances  is  obtained 
from  the  compounds  which  the  plant  stores  up  as  latent  heat  and 
is  transformed  by  the  animal  into  fats  and  flesh.  We  know  that 
an  animal  deprived  of  plant  substances  soon  wastes  away.  The 
animal  therefore  in  performing  work  of  any  kind  uses  the  sub- 
stances, fats  and  flesh.  The  fats  are  used  to  furnish  the  fuel 
and  the  flesh  to  repair  the  tissues.  Energy  in  animals  is  mani- 
fested by  muscular  movements.  It  is  generally  derived  from 
the  non-nitrogenous  substances.  The  muscles  are  moved  by  the 
action  of  the  non-nitrogenous  substances.  Let  us  represent  the 
sources  and  uses  of  energy  as  follows: 

Food  compounds  Animal  compounds  Functions 

Carbohydrates  and  fats  changed  to  Animal  fats  Used  as  fuel 

Protein,  water  and  ash  changed  to   Flesh,  fluids  and  the         Used   as   repair 

body  framework  materials 

Use  of  Compounds  Furnishing  Energy. — As  previously  men- 
tioned the  carbohydrates  and  fats  comprise  the  fuel  portion  of 
the  food.  Should  these  compounds  be  fed  in  amounts  just  suffi- 
cient to  do  the  work  required,  no  excess  will  be  stored  in  the 


FEED   STUFFS   AS  A   SOURCE   OF   ENERGY  6  1 

body.  Should  they  be  fed  in  excess  they  are  stored  as  fatty 
tissue  (beef  tallow,  hog  lard,  mutton  suet,  etc.)  with  which  we 
are  all  familiar.  When  protein  is  fed  in  larger  quantities  than 
needed  for  the  building  up  and  repair  of  the  body  tissues  it  may 
be  used  for  fuel  purposes.  The  use  of  protein  as  fuel  is  ex- 
travagant because  it  costs  much  more  than  carbohydrates  and 
fats.  The  fat  of  the  body  is  its  storehouse  of  fuel.  Animals 
fed  insufficiently  draw  on  their  stored  up  fats  and  be- 
come lean.  In  the  production  of  milk,  growth,  development 
of  the  young,  etc.,  fuel  and  repair  materials  are  reserved  when 
the  nutrients  supplied  are  sufficient. 

Potential  and  Kinetic  Energy.  —  There  are  two  kinds  of  energy 
manifested  in  the  animal,  namely,  potential  and  kinetic.  Poten- 
tial energy  is  that  which  is  in  the  food  and  stored  up  in  the 
animal  body.  It  may  be  likened  to  a  bent  spring.  Kinetic 
energy  is  represented  in  the  animal  by  work  and  heat.  It  is  the 
energy  represented  in  moving  bodies  and  may  be  likened  to  the 
swinging  of  a  pendulum. 

EXAMPLES  OF  POTENTIAL  AND  KINETIC  ENERGY  IN  THE  ANIMAL' 

Food  f 

Feces  (manure) 

Fetation  |      Potential  Energy 

Combustible  gases    I 
Storage  of  tissue       [ 

{      Kinetic  Energy 


Measurement  of  Energy.  —  There  is  a  great  variation  in  the 
content  of  nutrients  of  the  several  feeds.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  energy  or  heat  units  in  feeds  an  apparatus 
is  used  called  the  calorimeter.  This  apparatus  is  so  arranged 
that  the  heat  given  off  by  burning  a  feed  completely  is  absorbed 
by  water  and  the  heat  units  measured  or  calculated.  The  prin- 
cipal units  used  in  measuring  heat  are  the  small  calorie  (c),  large 
Calorie  (C)  and  the  therm  (t).  The  large  Calorie  (written 
with  a  capital  C)  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  I  kilogram  (2.2  Ibs.)  of  water  I  degree  Centi- 
grade, or  about  4  pounds  of  water  I  degree  Fahrenheit.  The 

1  Armsby,  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition. 


62         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


large  Calorie  is  equal  to  1,000  small  calories  (written  with  a 
small  c).  The  Calorie  is  used  more  than  calorie  because  of  the 
smaller  figures  necessary.  Armsby  of  the  Pennsylvania  Experi- 
ment Station,  says :  "For  expressing  the  heat  values  of  feeding 
stuffs,  it  is  convenient  to  use  a  unit  one  thousand  times  as  large 
as  the  Calorie,  known  as  the  therm,  which  accordingly  is  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1,000  kilo- 
grams (2204.6  Ibs.)  of  water  I  degree  Centigrade,  or  of  4,000 
pounds  of  water  i  degree  Fahrenheit.  The  heat  value  of  corn 
or  any  other  fuel,  as  thus  measured  and  expressed,  would  show 
its  value  as  fuel  to  be  burned  to  make  steam." 

These  values  are  commonly  called  heats  of  combustion. 
THE  ENERGY  VALUES  OF  SOME  FEED  STUFFS  IN  THERMS' 


Feed  stuffs 

Amount 
pounds 

Moisture 
Per  cent. 

Therms 

Ximotliv  hay  • 

Lo 

1  /o-  i 

Jo 

l/6  2 

lo 

*o 

J/1.4 

Oats  .... 

15 

i  /u.  y 

180  fi 

A0 

lo 

L7o*o 

Lo 

iyo./ 

Utilization  of  Energy. — It  is  no  doubt  surprising  to  you  that 
wheat  bran  is  not  a  great  deal  higher  in  chemical  energy  than 
timothy  hay;  and  corn  meal  than  oat  straw.  Armsby  says  in 
part:  "Two  causes  combine  to  affect  the  utilization  of  the 
chemical  energy  contained  in  feed  stuffs.  First,  more  or  less 
of  the  feed  escapes  from  the  body  unburned.  Much  of  even 
the  best  feeding  stuff  escapes  digestion  and  is  excreted  in  the 
dung,  carrying  with  it  a  corresponding  quantity  of  the  chemi- 
cal energy  of  the  feed.  More  or  less  incompletely  burned  ma- 
terial is  also  contained  in  the  urine,  while  ruminants,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  horses,  also  give  off  combustible  gases,  arising 
from  fermentations  in  the  digestive  tract.  Thus  about  22  per 
cent,  of  the  chemical  energy  of  corn  meal  and  fully  55  per  cent, 
of  that  of  average  hay  has  been  found  to  escape  in  these  ways. 

1  Farmers'  Bui.  346,  U.  S.  D.  A. 


FEED  STUFFS  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  ENERGY  63 

"Second,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  animal  body  has  to  ex- 
tract its  real  fuel  material  from  its  feed,  separating  it  from  the 
relatively  large  proportion  of  useless  material  which  it  excretes. 
To  effect  this  separation  requires  work  and  consumes  energy, 
and  this  energy,  of  course  is  not  available  for  other  purposes. 
Moreover,  when  the  animal  eats  more  feed  than  is  required  sim- 
ply to  furnish  energy  to  run  its  machinery  and  hence  is  able  to 
produce  meat  or  milk,  the  process  of  converting  the  food  into 
suitable  forms  to  store  up  in  the  body  seems  to  require  a  further 
expenditure  of  energy. 

"Total  Chemical  Energy  not  Always  an  Indication. — It  is  not, 
then,  the  total  chemical  energy  contained  in  a  feeding  stuff 
which  measures  its  value  as  fuel  material  to  the  body,  but  what  re- 
mains after  deducting  the  losses  in  the  unburned  materials  of  the 
excreta  and  the  energy  expended  in  extracting  the  real  fuel  mate- 
rials from  the  feed  and  transforming  them  into  substances  which 
the  body  can  use  or  store  up.  For  example,  while  100  pounds 
of  corn  meal  contain,  as  stated,  about  170.9  therms  of  chemical 
energy,  only  about  88.8  therms  remain,  after  all  these  deductions 
have  been  made,  to  represent  the  actual  value  of  the  corn  meal 
as  a  source  of  energy  to  the  organism." 

Respiration  Calorimeter  or  Respiration  Apparatus. — The  chemi- 
cal energy  of  a  feed  stuff  is  easy  to  determine  but  in  order  to 
find  out  the  amount  utilized  or  the  production  value,  the  respira- 
tion calorimeter  or  respiration  apparatus  is  used  which  is  an  air- 
tight chamber  in  which  man  or  animal  is  kept  and  food  and  air 
introduced.  To  determine  the  production  value  or  the  energy 
utilized,  accurate  data  must  be  kept  on  the  income  and  outgo  of 
all  materials.  The  income  includes  the  food,  composition  and 
amount  fed.  The  outgo  includes  feces,  urine,  perspiration,  com- 
bustible gases,  storage  of  tissue,  heat  and  work.  One  must  rea- 
lize that  an  apparatus  capable  of  measuring  all  these  things  (solids 
and  gases)  is  complicated  and  expensive.  To  secure  the  energy  val- 
ues of  feeds  require  considerable  work  and  the  expenditure  of 
much  time. 

The  respiration  apparatus  may  be  used  for  man  as  well  as 
for  animals. 


64      ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 
THE  RESPIRATION  APPARATUS  MEASURES  THE 

Income  Outgo 

Food  Feces 

Urine 

Perspiration 
Combustible  gases 
Storage  of  tissue 
Work 
Heat 


SECTION  XIV. 


NATURAL  STOCK  FEEDS. 

The  natural  feeds  used  for  feeding  stock  include  forage  crops, 
root  and  tuber  crops,  and  grains  and  seeds. 

Forage  Crops. — Under  this  head  come  green  and  cured  legu- 
minous plants,  the  grasses  and  the  grain  plants. 

Leguminous  Plants. — These  plants  differ  from  the  grasses  and 


Fig.  4.— Cowpeas,  a  good  leguminous  crop. 

the  grain  plants  in  that  they  contain  more  nitrogenous  substances, 
namely,  protein.  Alfalfa,  clovers,  vetches,  cowpeas  and  soja 
bean  are  some  of  our  leguminous  plants. 


66         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS 


Name  of  legume 

Composition  in  percent. 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Ash 

FRESH  OR  GREEN 
Alfalfa  

71-8 

74-8 
83.6 

80.9 
70.8 
75-1 

8.4 
9-7 
11.9 

9.6 
15-3 
n-3 

4.8 
3-9 
2.4 
3-1 
4.4 
4.0 

14-3 

12.8 

14.4 
15-2 
12.3 

154 

1.0 
0.9 
0.4 
0.7 
I.I 
1.0 

2.2 
2.9 
2-5 
2.8 

3.3 

5-2 

12.3 
II.  0 

7.1 
8.4 

13-5 
10.6 

42.7 
40.7 
41.2 
36.6 
38.  r 
38.6 

7-4 
7-4 
4.8 
5-2 
8.1 
6-7 

25.0 
25.6 

21.5 
27.2 
24.8 
22.3 

2-7 
2.O 

1.7 

1.7 

2.1 
2.6 

7-4 
8.3 
8.4 
8.6 

6.2 

7.2 

HAY 
Alfalfa  

Characteristics  of  Legumes. — The  leguminous  plants  carry 
higher  protein  and  ash  contents,  lower  carbohydrates  and  fiber, 
and  the  fat  is  about  the  same  as  in  grasses  and  grain  plants. 
The  grasses  and  grain  plants  tend  to  exhaust  the  soil  of  its 
fertility  while  the  legumes  have  the  habit  of  fixing  nitrogen  (the 
most  fugitive  and  costly  fertilizer  constituent)  in  the  soil.  Like 
the  other  two  classes  of  forage  crops  they  use  up  phosphoric 
acid,  potash  and  lime. 

Grasses. — The  principal  grasses  used  for  feeding  are  timothy, 
orchard,  crab,  red  top,  Johnson,  Kentucky  blue  (June),  and 
Bermuda. 

The  table  on  page  67  shows  us  that  the  grasses  are  much  lower 
in  protein  than  the  legumes. 

Grain  Plants. — Corn,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rice  and  wheat  are  some 
examples  of  this  class. 

Husbanding  of  Forage  Crops. — Forage  crops  are  not  always 
fed  in  their  natural  green  state  but  are  sometimes  husbanded  in 
other  ways.  For  instance,  our  leguminous  plants,  grasses  and 
grain  plants  are  often  dried  in  the  field  before  harvesting. 
This  field  curing  is  done  to  permit  the  farmer  to  save  these  crops 
and  feed  at  his  pleasure. 


NATURAL    STOCK    FEEDS 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  GRASSES 


Name  of  grass 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Ash 

FRESH  OR  GREEN 

65-1 
73-o 

65.3 
61.6 

21.2 

9-9 

8.9 
13.2 

10.6 

4.1 

2.6 

2.8 

3.1 

7-8 
8.1 
7-9 
5-9 

10.2 

1-3 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 

3-9 

2.6 

1.9 
2-5 

2.2 

17-6 
13-3 
17.7 
20.  2 

37-8 
41.0 

47-5 
45-0 
48.3 

9-1 
8.2 
II.  0 

ii.  8 

23.0 

32.4 
28.6 
29.0 
22.4 

2.8 
2.0 

2-3 
2.1 

6-3 

6.0 

5-2 
4-4 
6-4 

Orchard       

Red  top     

Timothy  

HAY 

T?  ff\  ton 

COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  GRAIN  PLANTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Name  of  grain  plant 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Ash 

GREEN  FODDERS 

7Q  O 

27 

o  6 

8  0 

7Q 

I  8 

/*rw 

7Q  1 

i  8 

o  ^ 

12  2 

•y 
50 

I   2 

Oat 

/9-3 
62  2 

3,4 

U«O 
I  A 

TQ    •? 

112 

2c 

76  6 

'7 
2  6 

o  6 

iy-o 
6  8 

ii  6 

i  8 

>e 

Losses  in  Field  Curing. — When  the  leguminous  plants  and 
grasses  are  dried  too  much  in  the  field,  many  of  the  leaves 
and  delicate  parts,  which  are  rich  in  protein,  fall  off,  thus  de- 
creasing the  value  of  these  classes  of  fodder;  the  palatability  is 
lessened  because  of  the  loss  of  the  aroma.  Losses  occur  in  all 
forage  plants  that  are  subjected  to  rain  and  cloudy  weather. 
Fermentation  often  sets  in  under  these  conditions  and  some  of 
the  plant  substances  are  lost.  Rain  often  washes  out  some  of 
the  ash,  nitrogen  free  extract  and  protein,  and  darkens  the  color 
of  the  product.  Grasses  suffer  less  than  other  plants  in  field 
curing.  Plants  like  corn,  with  thick  stalks,  are  practically  im- 
possible to  field  cure  without  losses  from  fermentation. 


68         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Time  to  Harvest  Forage  Plants. — It  is  generally  considered 
best  to  cut  grass  before  it  fully  matures  as  it  is  more  palatable 
and  the  digestible  nutrients  probably  amount  to  as  much  as  in 
the  fully  mature  plants.  The  legumes  if  allowed  to  mature 
suffer  large  losses  in  the  breaking  off  of  the  leaves  and  other 
tender  parts.  With  corn  it  is  best  to  allow  it  to  mature  before 
harvesting  as  the  fiber  decreases  and  half  of  the  carbohydrates 
increase  with  maturity.  This  increase  in  carbohydrates  is  to  be 
expected  as  the  ears  amount  to  about  one-half  the  weight  of 
the  crop.  The  dry  matter  of  the  mature  corn  plant  is  also  more 
digestible  than  that  of  the  immature  plant. 

Silage. — Often  times  feeds  are  preserved  in  the  green  state; 


Fig.  5.— Filling  a  silo. 

the  resulting  product  being  called  silage  or  ensilage.  To  ac- 
complish this  an  air-tight  box  called  the  silo  is  used.  The  fod- 
der is  best  preserved  by  chopping  into  small  pieces  about  one 
inch  long.  Corn  is  preserved  more  than  any  other  crop  in  this 
way,  although  the  sorghums  and  some  of  the  legumes  as  peas, 
the  clovers,  cowpeas,  soja  bean,  the  vetches  and  velvet  bean  are 


NATURAL    STOCK    FEEDS 


sometimes  used.  Sometimes  mixtures  as  oats  and  vetch,  corn 
and  cowpeas,  corn  and  soja  bean,  etc.  are  used.  Crops  that  can 
be  quickly  field  cured  are  not  generally  made  into  ensilage.  This 
method  of  preserving  crops  enables  the  feeder  to  furnish  green, 
succulent  feed  at  any  time  of  the  year,  which  is  especially  de- 
sirable to  promote  the  appetite,  excite  digestion,  and  increase 
milk  production.  This  method  does  away  with  the  losses  in- 
curred in  field  curing  because  of  unfavorable  weather  and  loss 
of  leaves,  etc.  It  puts  the  coarse  fodders  in  a  good  mechanical 
condition  for  handling.  It  is  more  completely  consumed  so  that 
there  is  little  waste.  On  the  whole  the  preserving  of  forage 
crops  in  a  silo  is  more  profitable  than  field  curing  for  crops 
with  thick  stems. 

COMPOSITION  OF  SILAGE 


Name  of  silage 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

ASh 

79.1 
76.1 
72.0 
74-2 
79-3 

% 

4.2 

4.1 
2.7 

0.8 

o-3 
1.2 
2.2 
1-5 

II.  O 

15.3 

11.6 

6.9 
7-6 

6.0 
6.4 
8.4 
9-7 
6.0 

1.4 

i.i 
i.6 

2.8 

2.9 

Silos  are  generally  of  the  round  (or  circular)  and  square 
forms.  The  square  form  is  used  in  barns  because  of  the  sav- 
ing of  space  and  the  round  form  is  the  better  for  outside  the 
barn.  The  latter  form  is  to  be  preferred  for  a  silo  because  the 
materials  settle  more  quickly  and  more  evenly.  Silos  may  be 
constructed  of  wood,  stone,  brick,  concrete,  etc.  Wood  is  very 
satisfactory  for  building  the  silo. 

Losses  in  Silage  are  usually  due  to  fermentation.  Experi- 
ments show  that  the  quicker  the  ensilage  is  packed  and  the  air 
excluded  the  less  will  be  these  losses. 

Well  handled  silage  has  about  the  samie  digestibility  as  corn 
fodder. 


70         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


DIGESTIBILITY  OF  CORN  SILAGE  AND  FODDER  CORNJ 


Forage 

Digestibility  in  per  cent. 

Dry 
matter 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Green  fodder  corn  

68 
66 
66 

35 
34 
3i 

61 

55 
53 

6l 
66 
67 

74 
69 

70 

74 
72 
Si 

Cured  fodder  corn  

Straw  is  obtained  in  the  threshing  of  grains  and  the  secur- 
ing of  leguminous  seeds.  Stover  from  corn  is  the  product  left 
after  field  drying  of  corn  grain  and  includes  the  whole  plant 
except  the  ears.  The  straws  from  legumes,  oats,  rice  and  other 
cereal  plants,  and  stover  from  corn  are  used  for  feeding.  The 
straws  from  grain  plants,  other  than  oats  and  rice,  are  gener- 
ally too  poor  for  feeding  and  may  be  used  for  bedding. 
COMPOSITION  OF  STRAWS  AND  STOVER 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Name  of  feed 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber         Ash 

Oat 

9.2 

12  O 

.u 

5Q 

•3 

2   I 

4^.4 

71     7 

o/-u            O-1 

38  6          78 

7r 

•V 

3Q 

I   2 

46  6 

3.8  Q                 1   2 

Wheat  

Q  6 

3      A 

I    1 

A\  A 

T.8  I             A  2 

y.w 

JO   I 

'7 

A  6 

i-j 
I  7 

•77    A 

AO  A              ^8 

22  8 

5r 

I  "* 

•2Q    Q 

2c  6              A  Q 

•o 

^-O 

oy-y 

Roots  and  Tubers. — Turnips,  carrots,  rutabagas,  mangel  wur- 
zels  (a  kind  of  beet)  and  beets  are  the  principal  root  crops 
used  for  feeding.  Potatoes  (Irish  and  sweet)  are  sometimes 
fed  but  they  are  generally  grown  for  human  consumption  and  too 
expensive  to  be  utilized  for  stock.  Irish  potatoes  are  known  as 
tubers.  The  root  and  tuber  crops  contain  a  great  deal  of  water ; 
the  average  per  cent,  of  water  in  these  crops  is  about  90  per 
cent.  That  is  for  every  100  pounds  of  roots  or  tubers  there 
are  only  10  pounds  of  dry  matter  or  actual  feed.  For  making 

1  Woll,  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


NATURAL    STOCK 


milk  or  producing  beef  and  mutton  the  feeding  of  root  crops 
is  satisfactory.  On  account  of  the  tonic  effect,  roots  give  re- 
sults far  above  what  the  chemical  composition  would  indicate. 
In  the  South  many  crops  can  be  grown  on  the  same  piece  of  land 
in  a  season;  roots  may  be  grown  in  the  early  fall  and  winter 
at  a  time  when  the  land  is  often  idle  and  harvested  in  time  for 
the  regular  planting  of  the  summer  crops.  Roots  and  tubers  can 
be  stored  away  and  kept  for  feeding,  provided  the  storehouse 
is  well  aired  and  kept  at  a  low  temperature.  Bull.  243,  Cornell. 
N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station,  says :  "If  corn  meal  is  worth  $20 
a  ton  or  more  in  New  York  State,  economy  in  the  production  of 
roots  would  be  indicated." 

COMPOSITION  OF  ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 


Name  of  feed 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Ash 

Carrot  

88.6 
86.5 
90.9 
78.9 
71.  1 
90-5 

.1 

.8 

•4 
.1 

•5 
.1 

0.4 

O.I 
0.2 
O.I 

0.4 

O.  2 

7.6 
9.8 
5-5 
17-3 

24.7 

6.2 

1-3 
0.9 
0.9 
0.6 
1-3 

1.2 

I.O 

0.9 

I.I 

I.O 
I.O 

0.8 

Beet  (susjar)  •  •  •     • 

Beet  (  mansjel  )  

Potato  (  Irish)  

Potato  (  swee*  )  

Grains  and  Seeds. — Some  of  our  principal  grains  and  seeds 
used  for  stock  feeding  are  corn,  cotton-seed,  rice,  oats,  barley, 
rye,  flaxseed,  wheat,  beans  and  peas.  Most  of  our  grains  and 
seeds  must  be  thoroughly  dried  before  they  are  stored  away. 
If  they  are  not  completely  dried,  they  are  liable  to  ferment  and 
decompose.  Such  deterioration  spoils  them  for  feeding  pur- 
poses. A  full  description  of  the  grains,  seeds  and  their  by-prod- 
ucts will  be  given  in  the  following  sections  under  commercial 
feed  stuffs. 

Production  of  Some  Feeds. — The  following  table1  gives  the 
production  of  some  farm  crops  for  the  year  1908.  All  of  the 
seeds  and  more  especially  their  by-products  are  used  extensively 
for  feeding  farm  animals  and  a  study  of  the  table  should  im- 

1  1908  Yearbook.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


72         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

press  the  student  with  the  great  amount  of  these  crops  consumed 
each  year  by  live-stock. 

Production,  1908  Farm  value,  Dec.  i,  1908 

Corn 2,668,651,000  bu.  $1,616,145,000 

Cotton 13, 24 r, 799  bales  588,814,828 

Rice 21,889,620  bu.  17,771,281 

Wheat 664,602,000  bu.  616,826,000 

Oats 807,156,000  bu.  381,171,000 

Barley 166,756,000  bu.  92,442,000 

Rye 31, 851,000  bu.  23,455,000 

Hay 70,798,000  tons  635,423,000 

Buckwheat 15,874,000  bu.  12,004,000 

Flax 25,851,000  bu.1 

Cane  sugar 365,000  long  tons 

Beet  sugar 380,254  long  tons 

Suggestion : — The  professor  should  try  to  secure  exhibits  of 
the  various  natural  and  commercial  feeds  in  order  to  make  the 
study  of  these  few  sections  more  interesting  and  instructive. 
Most  of  the  natural  feeds  may  be  easily  obtained  at  home.  If 
you  write  to  the  following  concerns  and  state  that  you  wish 
54  to  ^  a  pound  of  each  of  their  products  for  demonstration, 
I  believe  you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  collecting  an  elaborate 
exhibit,  provided  you  are  connected  with  a  college  or  a  high 
school.  The  student  or  the  farmer  cannot  expect  to  receive 
these  exhibits. 

LIST  OF  CONCERNS. 

Corn  and  its  by-products — Corn  Products  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Wheat  and  its  by-products — Washburn,  Crosby  Co.,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn. 

Oats  and  its  by-products — Quaker  Oats  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Flaxseed  and  its  by-products — American  Linseed  Co.,  Chicago, 
111. 

Cotton-seed  and  its  by-products — American  Cotton  Oil  Co., 
New  York  City ;  Southern  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Rice  and  its  by-products — Louisiana  Rice  Exp.  Station,  Crow- 
ley,  La. ;  Louisiana  Rice  Association,  Crowley,  La. 

Packing  House  by-products — Swift  &  Co.  or  Armour  &  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

1  1907. 


NATURAL,    STOCK    FEEDS  73 

Cane  molasses  (blackstrap) — Sugar  Exp.  Station,  Audubon 
Park,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Beet  molasses  and  dried  beet  pulp — The  Experiment  Stations 
of  Michigan,  Colorado,  California,  Utah  and  Wisconsin,  of 
Michigan  Sugar  Co.,  Saginaw,  Mich. ;  The  Great  Western  Sugar 
Co.,  Denver,  Col. ;  American  Beet  Sugar  Co. ;  32  Nassau  St., 
New  York  City  or  16  California  St.,  San  Francisco.  California. 

For  other  commercial  feeds  as  dried  brewers'  grains,  dried 
distillers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  feed  mixtures,  molasses  feeds, 
corn  and  oat  feeds,  wheat  admixtures,  poultry  feeds,  etc.,  con- 
sult the  chemist  in  charge  of  feed  stuff  control  in  your  state  or 
go  to  the  feed  stores  and  obtain  samples.  Condimental  feeds, 
condition  powders,  etc.,  may  be  obtained  at  feed  stores,  drug 
stores  and  occasionally  at  livery  stables. 

These  samples  may  be  preserved  in  museum  bottles  by  adding 
a  few  drops  of  formalin  and  closing  the  tops  with  cotton  or  glass 
stoppers.  The  formalin  is  added  in  order  to  kill  any  insects  that 
may  be  present  or  hatch  out  in  the  feed.  Cotton  is  recommended 
when  glass  stoppers  are  not  available  because  the  weevils  do 
not  penetrate  it  as  they  do  cork  stoppers. 

Have  the  students  make  a  list  of  the  natural  feeds  that  are 
raised  mostly  in  the  state. 


SECTION  XV. 


COMMERCIAL  FEEDS. 

Commercial  feeds  may  be  defined  as  those  feeds  made  from 
the  grains,  seeds,  their  by-products,  all  products  left  after  the 
preparation  of  human  foods  and  beverages,  the  by-products 
left  after  oil  extraction  and  animal  and  fish  by-products. 

Value  of  By-Products. — Many  of  these  by-products  are  very 
valuable  for  feeding  live-stock.  Cotton-seed  meal,  wheat  bran, 
wheat  middlings,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  dried  brewers'  grains, 
distillers'  grains,  rice  polish  and  hominy  feeds  are  a  few  of  the 
important  by-products  found  on  our  markets.  Others  of  these 
waste  products  such  as  inferior  corn,  oat  hulls,  rice  hulls,  buck- 
wheat hulls,  sweepings  and  elevator  dust  possess  little  feeding 
value  and  are  sometimes  injurious. 

New  By-Products. — Because  of  the  high  prices  of  grains  and 
seeds,  the  increasing  consumption  of  these  by  the  human  race, 
and  the  keen  competition,  almost  all  the  by-products  are  being 
saved  and  disposed  of  in  our  commercial  feeds.  New  by-prod- 
ucts are  continually  being  put  on  the  American  market,  gen- 
erally mixed  with  other  materials  but  sometimes  sold  unmixed. 

Sources  of  Commercial  Feeds. — The  following  statement  sum- 
marizes the  sources  of  the  by-products.  These  by-products  are 
derived  from: 

1.  The  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil,  linseed  oil  and  some- 
times other  vegetable  oils. 

2.  The   manufacture    of    whiskey,    beer,    alcohol,    spirits,    etc. 

3.  The  manufacture  of  human  cereals    (breakfast   foods). 

4.  The  manufacture  of  glucose  and  starch. 

5.  The  manufacture  of  products   from  grains,   such  as  flour 
and  rice. 

6.  The  manufacture  of  cane-sugar,  beet-sugar,  sorghum  cuite, 
etc. 

7.  The  manufacture  of  animal  and  fish  products. 

Vegetable  Oil  By-Products. — The  by-products  from  the  manu- 
facture of  vegetable  oils  are  principally  cotton-seed  meal,  cot- 
ton-seed hulls,  linseed  meal  and  flax  feed. 


COMMERCIAL   FEEDS  75 

Importance  of  Cotton  Products. — The  yield  of  cotton  in  the 
United  States  is  approximately  11,000,000  bales  per  year.  It 
takes  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  make  a  bale  and  a  bale 
weighs  500  pounds.  This  leaves  1,000  pounds  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  by-products.  The  oil  mills  do  not  secure  all  of  the 
seed,  as  many  of  the  planters  keep  the  seed  for  feeding  and 
fertilizing  at  home.  The  .price  of  seed  is  on  the  increase  and 
a  greater  per  cent,  of  the  seed  raised  is  being  sold  to  the  manu- 
facturers every  year  than  formerly.  For  the  year  1908,  929, 
287,  467  pounds  of  cotton-seed  were  manufactured.1  The  boll 
weevil,  an  insect  that  destroys  a  great  many  bolls  of  cotton,  thus 
decreasing  the  yield,  has  been  and  is  diminishing  the  yield  and 
acreage  of  cotton  in  certain  sections  of  the  cotton  belt.  The 
figures  cited,  however,  should  impress  the  student  with  the  im- 
portance of  this  industry  and  the  large  amount  of  cotton-seed 
meal  and  hulls  which  are  used  for  feeding  purposes. 

Cotton-Seed  Products. — Attached  to  the  seed  of  cotton  are  long 
white  fibers  known  to  us  as  cotton.  When  the  cotton  is  ginned 
all  of  these  fibers  or  lint  are  removed  except  a  few  short  fibers 
which  adhere  to  the  seeds.  The  seeds  are  then  taken  to  a  cot- 
ton-seed oil  mill  and  treated  as  follows.  First,  the  greater 
part  of  the  lint  is  removed  by  a  second  ginning  in  a  machine 
called  the  delinter,  leaving  the  seed.  The  seed  is  composed  of 
the  hull,  or  hard  outer  covering,  and  the  kernel  or  meat.  The 
seeds  are  then  put  through  a  machine  called  the  huller  which 
removes  the  hulls  from!  the  seed.  This  process  is  called  de- 
corticating the  seed.  The  whole  mass  (hulls  and  meats )  is  now 
subjected  to  a  separating  process  by  shaking  in  a  revolving 
screen,  the  meats  passing  through  the  perforations  of  the  screen. 
The  hulls  obtained  in  this  process  are  known  as  cotton-seed 
hulls.  The  meats  are  conveyed  from  the  shaker  to  special  steam 
jacketed,  covered  kettles  and  cooked.  The  cooked  meats  are 
transferred  to  a  machine,  called  the  cake  former,  where  they 
are  made  up  into  cakes  or  forms  of  the  proper  size  to  fit  the 
hydraulic  press,  and  wrapped  with  camels'  hair  cloth.  These 
hot  forms  are  now  subjected  to  enormous  pressure  in  a  hydraulic 

1  1908  Yearbook.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


76         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

press  and  the  oil  is  removed.     The  remaining  product  is  ground 


Fig.  6.— Cotton,  the  source  of  cotton-seed  meal. 

and   sold  as  cotton-seed   meal,   although   a   great   deal   of   it   is 
shipped  to  foreign  countries  without  being  ground. 

YIELDS  OF  PRODUCTS  OF  A  TON  OF  COTTON-SEEDT 

Pounds 

Ivinters 23 

Hulls 943 

Crude  oil  (37.6  gals. ) 282 

Cake  or  meal 713 

Waste 39 

Total 2,000 

This  is  about  the  average  yield  of  the  cotton  oil  mills  al- 
though in  many  cases  the  production  of  oil  approximates  40 
to  45  gallons.  The  higher  extraction  of  oil  will  of  course  re- 
duce the  amount  of  meal.  In  the  past  few  years  the  oil  mills 
have  been  securing  a  higher  extraction  of  oil,  averaging  about 
40  gallons  per  ton  of  seed.  Dry,  clean,  mature  seed  yields  more 
hulls  than  immature  seed  and  produces  a  better  grade  of  oil. 

1  I<amborn,  Cotton  Seed  Products. 


COMMERCIAL   FEEDS 


77 


COMPOSITION  OF  COTTON-SEED,  MEATS,  MEAL  AND  HULLS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

18.4 
31-2 
43-  o 

4-2 

19.9 
36.6 
8.5 

2.2 

24.7 
I7.6 
25.7 
33-4 

23.2 

ri 

46.3 

10.3 
6.2 
8.2 
II.  I 

3-5 
4-7 

6.8 

2.8 

The  composition  of  these  products  varies  a  great  deal.  Some- 
times the  meal  reaches  49  per  cent,  protein.  Some  mills  have 
poor  extraction  and  turn  out  meal  that  carries  10  to  13  per  cent, 
fat.  The  feed  sold  as  cotton-seed  hulls  varies  with  the  amount 
of  broken  meats  present.  A  poor  separation  of  hulls  and  meats 
causes  this  product  to  occasionally  contain  as  high  as  10  per 
cent,  protein  and  2.5  to  3  per  cent.  fat.  The  composition  of 
cotton-seed  meal  is  apt  to  vary  with  the  season,  the  nature  of 
the  soil  it  was  raised  on,  the  fertilizers  applied  and  the  climatic 
conditions. 
COMPOSITION  OF  COTTON-SEED  MEAL  FROM  HIGH  AND  Low  LAND  SEED 


Cotton-seed  meal  from 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
tree  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

45-46 
41.63 

8.63 
7.22 

24.24 
26.64 

7.25 
9.68 

8.52 
8.60 

5-9° 
6.23 

Cold  Pressed  Cake. — This  is  sometimes  sold  as  Caddo  cake  and 
is  the  residue  obtained  from  cotton  seed  from  which  most  of  the 
oil  has  been  extracted  by  compression,  without  separating-  the 
kernels  and  the  hulls  and  without  heating. 

COMPOSITION  OF  COLD  PRESSED  CAKE 


Protein 
Per  cent. 

Fat  (ether 
extract) 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen  free 
extract 
Per  cent. 

Fiber 
Per  cent. 

Water 
Per  cent. 

Ash 
Per  cent. 

21-28.5 

5-8-13.5 

26-33 

17-26 

7 

5 

78      ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Flax  Products. — These  materials  are  very  common  in  certain 
sections  of  the  West.  They  are  derived  from  the  flax  plant 
which  is  grown  for  its  valuable  fiber. 

The  yearly  production  of  flaxseed  in  the  United  States  aver- 
ages about  25,000,000  to  26,000,000  bushels.  A  bushel  of  flax- 
seed  (56  Ibs.)  contains  about  19  pounds  of  oil  and  36  pounds 
of  other  material.1  For  the  year  1908,  696,135,362  pounds  of 
linseed  cake  was  manufactured.2. 

1.  Linseed  Meal. — There  are  two  classes  of  linseed  meal  found 
on  the  American  market,  namely,  old  process  and  new  process 
meal.     The  old  process  meal  is  obtained  by  pressing  out  the  oil 
from  the  cold  or  warmed   crushed  flax   seeds.     The  new  pro- 
cess  consists   of   extracting  the   oil    from   the  warmed   crushed 
flax  seeds  by  the  use  of  naphtha.     This  new  process  is  employed 
because  it  permits  of  a  greater  extraction  of  oil.     The  naphtha 
is  driven  off  by  steam  before  the  product  is  placed  upon  the 
market. 

2.  Flax  Feed. — This  by-product  is  composed  of  the  screenings 
from  the   flax   seed,   which   contains   inferior   flax   seeds,   weed 
seeds,  as  well  as  part  of  the  shell  and  fiber  of  the  flax.     It  is 
usually  ground  and  used  to  some  extent  in  mixed  feeds. 

3.  Flax  Bran  is  a  variable  product  which  is  used  by  manufac- 
turers of  commercial  feeds  as  a  filler  and  to  furnish  bulk  and 
roughage   to   their   feeds.     It    is   generally   made   up   of    stems, 
pods  and  small  flax   seeds  in   varying  proportions.     The  value 
of  this  product  depends   upon  the  amount  of  flaxseed  present. 

4.  Cold  Pressed  Linseed  Cake. — This   is  the  residue  obtained 
by  pressing  most  of  the  oil  from  flaxseed  by  compression  with- 
out heating.     The  process  of  obtaining  this  product  is  similar 
to   that   employed   in   manufacturing   cold    pressed   cotton    seed 
cake.     Cold  pressed  linseed  cake  contains  more   fat    (oil)    and 
less  protein  than  linseed  meal. 

1  Jordan,  "The  Feeding  of  Animals," 

2  1908  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


COMMERCIAL   FEEDS 


79 


COMPOSITION  OF  FLAX  SEED  AND  ITS  FEEDING  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

22.6 
32.9 

33-2 

15-9 
6.0 

7.2 

3-5 

33-7 
7-9 

3-o 

II.  6 

4.3 

5-8 
2-5 

23.2 
35-4 
38.4 
41.9 
34-8 
37-3 
28.5 

7-1 
8.9 

9-5 
14.6 
41.8 
35-5 
54-9 

9.2 
9-2 
10.  1 

8.1 
7-4 
7-5 
,  7-2 

4-3 
5-7 

5-8 
7-9 
5-7 
6.7 

3-4 

Flax  feed            

(Pods,  59  95  per  cent.)  .  • 
(Stems,  40.05  per  cent.  )  • 

Value  of  Old  and  New  Process  Meal. — Woll  found  by  artificial 
digestion  that  the  protein  of  old  process  meal  is  10  per  cent, 
more  digestible  than  the  protein  of  the  new  process  meal.  This 
lower  digestibility  of  protein  in  the  new  process  meal  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  use  of  steam  to  drive  off  the  naphtha.  We  learned 
that  the  cooking  of  plant  substances  reduces  the  digestibility  of 
protein. 

Other  Vegetable  Oil  Feeds  are  peanut  meal,  sunflower  seed 
meal,  rape  seed  meal,  cocoanut  meal  and  palm-nut  meal.  These 
are  not  used  extensively  in  this  country  for  feeding  stock.  The 
whole  peanuts  of  course  are  used  for  human  and  hog  feed,  but 
are  not  common  as  commercial  feeds. 

Alcoholic  By-Products. — Brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  and  dis- 
tillers' grains  are  examples  of  these  by-products.  They  are 
rich  in  nitrogenous  substances  containing  about  ^2  to  24  as  much 
protein  as  choice  cotton  seed  meal,  when  dried. 

i.  Brewers'  Grains. — These  are  the  by-products  from  the  manu- 
facture of  beer.  They  consist  principally  of  barley  grains  from 
which  the  starch  and  other  soluble  matter  have  been  extracted. 
When  brewers'  grains  are  used  without  drying,  as  wet  brewers' 
grains,  they  must  be  fed  near  the  brewery,  as  their  high  water 
content  will  not  permit  of  shipping,  because  of  the  liability  of 
fermentation  setting  in  especially  in  warm  locations,  and  the 
cost  of  transportation  generally  makes  them  unprofitable  as  feed. 

1  Bui.  141,  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 


8O         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 

Brewers'  grains  are  kiln  dried  and  sold  as  dried  brewers'  grains. 
In  this  form  they  are  not  perishable. 

2.  Malt  Sprouts. — In  the  fermenting  of  barley  for  the  manu- 
facture of  beer  the  barley  begins  to  grow  or  sprout.       When 
these  barley   sprouts  have   attained  a  height   of   about   %   inch 
they  are  removed  from  the  grain  by  machinery.     They  are  then 
artificially   dried   and   sold   as   malt   sprouts.     Feeders   near   the 
breweries  often  feed  them  in  the  wet  state. 

3.  Distillers'  Grains. — In  the  manufacture  of  whiskey  and  al- 
cohol,   etc.,   the  starch   and   other   soluble   matter   are   removed 
from  the  several  cereal  grains.     The  remaining  product  is  kiln 
dried  and  sold  as  dried  distillers'  grains.     This  product  consists 
mostly   of   the   germ,   nitrogenous    substances   and   outer   cover- 
ings of  the  cereal  grains. 


COMPOSITION  OF  ALCOHOLIC  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
tree  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

5-4 
25-1 
27.6 
32.1 

1.6 
6.8 

3.o 
11.4 

12.5 
41.7 

47-1 
34-9 

3.8 
15.4 
10.9 

II.  0 

75-7 
7-1 
5.o 
8.8 

I.O 

3-9 
6.4 

i-7 

Dried  brewers'  grains  

Dried  distillers'  grains.... 

Breakfast  Food  By-Products. — In  the  manufacture  of  cereal 
foods,  only  the  sound  grains  are  used.  Oats,  wheat,  corn,  bar- 
ley and  rice  are  the  principal  grains  from  which  breakfast  foods 
are  made.  The  hulls  of  the  grains  are  usually  removed  and 
these  hulls  together  with  the  inferior  grains,  and  sometimes  other 
parts  of  the  grain,  go  to  make  up  commercial  stock  feeds.  Oat 
feeds  and  corn  and  oat  feeds  are  stock  feeds  which  are  made 
up  almost  entirely  of  breakfast  food  by-products.  The  corn 
and  oat  feeds  are  sold  to  a  large  extent  in  this  country  and 
sometimes  cost  almost  as  much  as  the  original  grains  from 
which  thev  are  derived. 


COMMERCIAL   FEEDS 


8l 


COMPOSITION  OF  OAT  AND  CORN  AND  OAT  FEEDS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

7.2 
8.7 
3-3 

2.1 

3-9 

I.O 

53-1 
65.2 
52.1 

23.4 
9.2 
29.7 

8.6 
9.6 
7.2 

5-6 
3-4 
6.7 

Fig.  7. — Corn  kernel. 

a— is  the  husk  or  skin  covering  the  whole  kernel;  it  consists  of  two  distinct  layers, 
the  outer  and  inner,  which  when  removed  constitute  the  bran  and  contain  practically 
all  of  the  crude  fiber  of  the  whole  grain;  b— is  a  layer  of  gluten  cells  which  lie  imme- 
diately underneath  the  husk;  it  is,  as  a  rule,  yellow  in  color  and  cannot  be  readily 
separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  kernel;  this  part  is  richest  in  gluten;  c— is  the 
germ  which  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  position  and  form;  it  also  contains  gluten 
though  it  is  particularly  rich  in  oil  and  mineral  constituents;  d— the  large  portion,  is 
composed  chiefly  of  starch;  the  dark  color  indicates  the  flinty  part  in  which  the  starch 
cells  are  most  closely  compacted.  Illustration  after  New  Jersey  Exp.  Sta.  Description 
after  Mass.  Exp.  Sta. 


82         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


COMPOSITION  OF  CORN  AND  OATS  FOR  COMPARISON 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

Corn  

9-1 
II.  8 

3-7 
5-0 

72.5 

59-7 

2.2 

9-5 

II.  I 

II.  0 

1-4 
3-o 

Oats  

Glucose  and  Starch  By-Products. — There  are  many  by-products 
left  from  the  manufacture  of  glucose  and  starch.  These  by- 
products usually  come  from  the  grain  of  corn.  Gluten  meal, 
gluten  feed,  corn  bran,  hominy  feed,  feed  meal  and  corn  germ 
meal  are  corn  by-products,  i.  Gluten  meal  is  derived  from'  the 
nitrogenous  portion  of  the  corn  grain,  known  as  the  gluten 
layer.  This  feed  is  not  so  common  on  our  markets  as  formerly. 
2.  Gluten  feed  is  ground  corn  grain  minus  the  starch.  3.  Corn 
bran  is  made  up  of  the  outer  husks  or  coverings  of  the  corn 
grain.  4.  Corn  germ  meal  is  generally  the  ground  corn  germs 
with  more  or  less  of  the  oil  extracted.  5.  Hominy  feed  and 
feed  meal  are  the  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of  hominy 
grits  and  starch.  They  vary  in  composition  and  usually  consist 
of  the  softer  parts  of  the  corn  kernel  and  sometimes  they  contain 
corn  bran. 

COMPOSITION  OF  CORN,  GLUCOSE  AND  STARCH  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

9-1 
29-3 
24.0 
9.0 
9.8 
99 

.ti 

10.6 
5.8 
7-4 
7-1 

72.5 
46.5 
51-2 
62.2 
64.0 
64.4 

2.2 

3-3 
5-3 

12.6 

4.1 
7.1 

II.  I 

8.2 

7.8 

9-i 

10.7 
9.0 

1.4 

0.9 
i.i 

1.3 

4.0 

2.5 

riiiitpti  fppd 

Suggestion : — Require  the  students  to  bring  as  many  different 
kinds  of  breakfast  foods  as  possible  to  the  classroom.  Have 
them  state  the  grains  from  which  they  were  made  and  the  part 
or  parts  that  were  eliminated  in  manufacture. 


SECTION  XVI. 


COMMERCIAL  FEEDS — Continued 
Milling  By-Products. — These  consist  of  wheat  by-products  and 

rice  by-products. 

Wheat   By-Products. — Of    the   664,602,000   bushels   of    wheat 

harvested  in  the  United  States  during   1908  about  n  per  cent. 

was  saved  for  seed  and  25  per  cent,  of  the  remainder  constituted 

the  wheat  by-products.     According  to  Bessey  the  wheat  kernel 

is  made  up  as  follows  :* 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Coatings 5        Starch  cells J*4-86 

Gluten  layer 3-4     Germ 6 

Wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  wheat  screenings  and  flour  are 
products  derived  from  the  wheat  kernel,  i.  Wheat  bran  con- 
sists mostly  of  the  outer  portions  of  the  wheat  kernel.  2.  Wheat 
middlings  is  sometimes  called  shorts,  and  is  made  up  of  the 
inner  layers  of  the  outer  covering  of  the  wheat  kernel.  '3. 
Wheat  screenings  is  a  variable  product  obtained  in  screening 
wheat  to  prepare  it  for  manufacturing  into  flour.  It  generally 
consists  mostly  of  fine  particles  of  the  kernel,  shrunken  kernels, 
and  may  contain  weed  seeds  and  other  foreign  matter.  It  is 
used  in  mixed  feeds  and  sometimes  fed  alone.  4.  Flour  is 
made  from  the  starchy  part  of  the  wheat  kernel,  or  the  soft 
white  interior  portion.  When  flour  contains  middlings  it  is 
known  as  low  grade  flour,  red  dog  flour,  dark  feeding  flour  and 
used  for  feeding  live-stock. 

COMPOSITION  OF  WHEAT  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

ii.  9 
15.4 
16.1 

15-5 
12.5 
13-4 

II.  2 

2.1 

4.0 

4-5 

4-3 
3-0 
1.8 

0.5 

71.9 
53-9 
58.7 

56.8 
65.I 
68.2 
77.0 

1.8 
9.0 

5-7 

7-4 
4-9 
1-5 

0.3 

10.5 

II-  9 
10.4 

10.9 
ii.  6 

J3-3 
10.6 

1.8 

5-8 

4-6 

5-1 
2.9 

0.4 

Wheat  middlings  (shorts). 
Wheat  mixed  feed  (bran 

Jordan,  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


84         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

From  the  foregoing  analyses  of  wheat  and  its  by-products  it 
is  apparent  that  the  by-products  used  for  stock  feed  are  higher 
in  nitrogenous  substances  than  the  high-grade  flour  used  for 
human  consumption.  The  carbohydrates  are  higher  in  the  flours 
than  in  the  coarser  products. 

Rice  By-Products. — The  rice  crop  of  the  United  States  for 
1908  was  estimated  as  21,889,620  bushels.1  A  bushel  of  rough 
rice  weighs  45  pounds.  A  barrel  of  rough  rice  of  162  pounds 
contains  approximately  the  following  products:2 

91.32  Ibs.  head  or  clean  rice  (unbroken  grains),  No.  i  grade 

15.30  Ibs.  broken  rice,  No.  2  grade 

6.28  Ibs.  brewers'  rice,  very  broken  (grits) 

20.00  Ibs.  bran 

8.00  Ibs.  polish 

21. 10  Ibs.  hulls 

162.00  Ibs.     Total 

Rice  hulls,  rice  bran,  rice  meal,  rice  grits  and  rice  polish  are 
the  by-products  obtained  in  the  milling  of  rice.  I.  Rice  hulls 
are  the  outer  protecting  parts  or  hulls  of  the  rice  kernel.  They 
are  sometimes  injurious  when  fed  in  large  quantities,  on  account 
of  their  silicious  or  sandy  structure.  2.  Rice  bran.  This  ma- 
terial comprises  the  outer  layer  of  the  rice  kernel  together  with 
some  of  the  germ.  Most  of  the  rice  brans  contain  some  rice 
hulls.  The  rice  hulls  cannot  always  be  entirely  eliminated  in 
manufacturing  but  there  will  not  be  enough  in  this  product  to 
be  injurious  provided  the  hulls  are  not  added.  3.  Rice  meal. 
This  material  is  usually  sold  under  the  name  of  rice  bran  and 
is  similar  to  rice  bran  except  that  it  is  practically  free  from 
hulls.  4.  Rice  grits  or  brewers'  rice.  This  product  is  made  up 
of  the  small  hard  particles  which  break  off  from  the  kernel  in 
obtaining  the  rice  polish  or  in  handling  rice.  Grits  are  used 
by  the  brewers  .in  making  beer.  Being  small  and  hard  they  are 
apt  to  be  of  little  feeding  value  unless  ground.  The  brewers' 
are  glad  to  pay  a  higher  price  than  the  feeder  can  afford  for 
this  article.  5.  Rice  polish.  This  consists  of  the  flour,  or  white 

1  1908  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

2  Bui.  77,  Louisiana  Exp.  Station. 


COMMERCIAL    FEEDS 


powdery  substance,  which  is  removed  from  the  rice  kernel.  The 
rice  kernel  is  corrugated  or  rough,  and  in  giving  to  it  the 
smooth  appearance  and  pearly  lustre  that  the  trade  demands, 
the  rough  parts  are  smoothed  down  and  brushed  off  with  spec- 
ial machinery.  Rice  meal  and  rice  polish  are  excellent  feeds 
when  sweet.  Sometimes  the  meal  contains  a  high  content  of 
fat  (12-20  per  cent.)  which  is  objectionable  because  of  its  li- 
ability to  turn  rancid,  in  which  case  the  feed  is  not  fit  for  use. 
Rice  polish  is  a  good  feed  for  fattening  hogs  and  cattle. 

COMPOSITION  OF  RICE  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

7.4 
7-5 
3-5 

9-9 
13-3 
II.  I 

2.6 

0.4 
0.5 

9-9 

10.7 

5-8 

64.3 
78.1 
26.8 

44-5 
49-8 
64-3 

9-3 
0.5 
41-9 

14-5 

8.7 

3-8 

10.9 
12.8 
9.0 

1:1 

11.5 

5-5 
0.7 

18.3 

"•3 

8.9 

3-5 

Rice  hulls  

Rice  bran  (  15  per  cent, 
hulls)  

Rice  polish  

Sugar  By-Products. — About  20,000,000  gallons  of  cane  mo- 
lasses (blackstrap)  are  produced  annually  in  the  United  States. 
A  gallon  weighs  about  12  pounds.  A  great  deal  of  this  output  is 
used  for  feeding  live-stock.  The  demand  for  cane  molasses  for 
feeding  is  not  satisfied  by  the  Louisiana  output  so  a  great  deal 
is  being  imported  from  the  tropical  countries,  notably  Porto 
Rico  and  Cuba.  There  is  also  a  large  quantity  of  beet  molasses 
used  for  feeding.  The  amount  used  is  hard  to  estimate  because 
many  factories  work  over  their  molasses  so  that  there  is  none 
left  for  feeding.  However,  it  is  questionable  at  the  present 
whether  it  is  not  more  profitable  to  sell  the  molasses  as  stock 
feed  than  to  work  it  over  for  its  sugar  content. 

The  sugar  by-products  used  for  stock  feeds  are  cane  mo- 
lasses, beet  molasses,  beet  pulp  and  sorghum  cuite  or  molasses. 
i.  Cane  molasses.  The  cane  molasses  sold  for  stock  feed  is 
usually  the  final  product  from  the  manufacture  of  cane-sugar. 


86        ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

It  is  called  Blackstrap  and  is  noted  for  its  high  content  of  di- 
gestible carbohydrates.  It  also  contains  2.4  per  cent,  of  protein 
which  is  considered  to  be  in  the  form  of  amides,  which  have 
a  doubtful  flesh  forming  function.  Therefore  in  using  this  for 
feeding,  the  protein  is  disregarded.  2.  Beet  molasses.  This  is 
the  final  product  left  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the 
sugar  beet  when  the  molasses  is  not  worked  over.  Beet  mo- 


Fig.  8. — Sugar  cane,  the  source  of  cane  molasses. 


lasses  contains  less  carbohydrates  than  cane  molasses  and  more 
ash.  It  has  a  bitter  taste  due  to  the  large  amount  of  potash 
present  and  for  this  reason  is  not  used  for  human  consumption. 
Like  cane  molasses,  beet  molasses  is  used  a  great  deal  for  feed- 
ing purposes,  although  it  is  not  so  palatable  as  molasses  from 
cane.  3.  Beet  pulp.  This  is  the  refuse  or  what  remains  of  the 
sugar  beet  after  the  sugar  has  been  extracted.  It  is  often  mixed 
with  the  molasses  residues  of  the  factory  and  is  very  wet.  For 
this  reason  it  cannot  be  used  in  the  wet  condition,  except  by 


COMMERCIAL,    FEEDS 


feeders  near  the  factory.  Beet  refuse  is  often  kiln  dried  and 
sold  as  dried  beet  pulp.  In  this  condition  it  is  not  perishable. 
4.  Sorghum  molasses  or  cuite.  This  product  is  used  to  a  limited 
extent  in  some  sections  for  feeding  live-stock. 

COMPOSITION  OF  SUGAR  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

2       A 

65.9 

59-5 
6-3 
57-o 

2-4 

18.8 

22.4 
20.8 
89.8 
IO.4 

9-3 
10.6 
0.6 
3-3 

Beet  pulp  (  dried.  )  

9.0 

i-5 

Animal  and  Fish  By-Products. — The  principal  products  of  ani- 
mal origin  are  milk  and  its  by-products,  and  refuse  from  pack- 
ing houses.  The  by-products  from  fish  are  classed  as  fish  re- 
fuse. 

Milk. — The  composition  of  milk  varies  a  great  deal  with  the 
species  of  animal.1 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Water 

Dry 
matter 

Ash 

^sein                  Ajbo- 

Sugar 

Fat 

7C     AA 

2  A  *ZA 

77 

6   TO                             ^  O^ 

3OQ 

Q  ^7 

7Q  46 

20  ^6 

•  /  6 
Q7 

521                            I   4*\ 

.VM 

4  28 

8  61 

84  O4 

i  ^  06 

-y/ 

I  O^ 

•^O                              L*43 

721 

311 

"•"O 

4CC 

Goat 

QA  n/1 

76 

'*3 

3  /to                         86 

•*o 

Io-9° 

•7° 

.49                         .00 

•** 

88   2O 

TI  80 

•7° 

3.20 

.10 
6  80 

3-9° 

89  8O 

T  SA 

6  89 

ou 

I    I  7 

•3° 

1.04 

l.  J  / 

In  all  probability  the  nutrients  are  present  in  milk  in  the 
right  proportions  for  supporting  the  young  animal,  as  nature 
intended  that  it  should  be  used  to  furnish  the  young  animals' 
needs.  The  table  shows  that  there  is  quite  a  difference  in  the 
dry  matter  of  milk  from  the  species.  The  milks  containing 

1  Jordan,  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


88         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


the  higher  dry  matter  are  also  higher  in  nitrogenous  substances 
and  ash,  and  lower  in  sugar  than  those  lower  in  dry  matter. 

Milk  By-Products. — Skim  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey  are  the 
principal  milk  by-products  used  for  feeding  live-stock,  i.  Skim 
milk  is  obtained  by  allowing  milk  to  stand  skimming  off  the 
cream  or  by  separating  it  by  centrifugal  force.  2.  Buttermilk 
is  what  remains  after  making  butter.  It  has  about  the  same 
composition  as  skim  milk.  3.  Whey  is  the  by-product  obtained 
in  making  cheese.  The  fat  and  casein  of  the  milk  are  removed 
in  cheese  making. 

COMPOSITION  OF  Miuc  BY-PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Water 

Fat 

Cafein 
and 
albumen 

Milk 
sugar 

Ash 

Author- 
ity 

90.43 
90.30 
90.12 
93.38 

0.87 
O.  IO 
1.09 
0.32 

3.26 
3-55 
4-03 
0.86 

4-74 
5.25 
4.04 

4-79 

0.70 
0.80 
0.72 
0.65 

Konig 
V'nSlyke 
Konig 
Konig 

Skim  milk  (  centrifugal  )  .  . 
Buttermilk  

Whev 

Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  run  lower  in  water  and  higher  in 
nitrogenous  substances  than  whey.  Therefore  whey  is  more  of 
a  carbohydrate  food  than  skim  milk  and  buttermilk. 

Packing  House  By-Products. — From  the  packing  houses  come 
tankage,  dried  blood,  meat  scraps,  bone  meal,  and  meat  and  bone 
meal.  These  products  are  sometimes  fed  to  hogs  and  are  ex- 
cellent for  poultry.  Tankage  is  composed  entirely  of  animal 
matter.  It  consists  of  meat  and  T)one  (from  which  the  fat  has 
been  extracted)  and  more  or  less  dried  blood.  It  is  variable  in 
composition,  but  it  usually  contains  a  high  content  of  protein. 
Dried  blood  is  simply  what  the  name  signifies.  It  has  a  black 
brown  color  and  is  ground  very  fine.  It  is  sold  as  red  blood 
and  black  blood;  the  red  blood  being  of  higher  protein  composi- 
tion. Bone  meal  is  finely  ground  bone  and  is  generally  sold 
after  the  fat  has  been  extracted  because  of  its  better  keeping 
qualities. 


COMMERCIAL    FEEDS 


89 


Fish  Refuse  is  the  dried  product  from  canneries,  whale  bone 
establishments  and  factories  where  glue  is  manufactured.  The 
oil  is  generally  extracted  and  the  fish  refuse  dried  and  sold  as 
fish  scraps  or  dry  ground  fish. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMAL  AND  FISH  BY-PRODUCTS 


Tankage 
Per  cent. 

Dried 
blood 
Per  cent. 

Meat 
scraps 
Per  cent. 

Dry  gro'nd 
fish 
Per  cent. 

Bone  meal 
Per  cent. 

Meat  and 
bone  meal 
Per  cent. 

46 

SA 

ec 

c-y 

26 

pat  

2C 

I/I 

6 

* 

IO 

Ash  

47 

2O 

•5  T 

67 

A.G 

o1 

All  these  products  are  highly  nitrogenous  and  those  that  have 
bone  present  contain  a  large  percentage  of  mineral  compounds. 
Rations  of  cereals  and  these  products,  that  contain  high  ash  con- 
tents, are  very  satisfactory  with  hogs,  as  the  cereals  are  gener- 
ally deficient  in  the  nutrients  that  these  products  are  rich  in. 
When  corn  is  fed  alone  to  hogs  the  addition  of  one  of  these 
by-products  containing  bone  proves  beneficial. 


SECTION  XVII. 


CLASSES  OF  COMMERCIAL  FEEDS. 

In  the  previous  three  sections  descriptions  of  the  natural  and 
commercial  feeds  were  discussed;  feeds  are  not  always  found 
on  our  markets  unmixed,  but  in  various  mixed  combinations. 
There  are  many  manufacturers  who  use  the  natural  and  by- 
product feeds  and  mix  them  in  varying  proportions,  often  selling 
them  under  elaborate  trade  names.  These  manufacturers  sell 
enormous  quantities  of  stock  feeds  to  our  feeders. 

We  will  now  take  up  some  of  these  mixtures.  On  page  91 
are  the  principal  feeds  that  the  manufacturers  offer  to  the  trade 
with  standards  of  protein,  fat  and  fiber.  A  feed  to  be  of  stand- 
ard quality  should  not  exceed  the  fiber  content  and  it  should 
reach  the  protein  and  fat  contents.  The  feed  should  also  be 
clean,  free  from  fermentation,  mold,  rancidity  and  be  in  good 
mechanical  condition.  Some  of  the  data  in  this  table  is  adapted 
from  Bui.  120,  Mass.  Exp.  Station,  and  represent  averages. 

A  Discussion  of  the  Table. — It  must  be  remembered  that  many 
of  these  feeds  are  not  sold  under  the  names  given  in  the  above 
table.  The  manufacturers  of  mixed  feeds  usually  employ  at- 
tractive names  which  do  not  always  reveal  the  nature  of  the 
products  which  make  up  the  mixtures.  For  example,  we  may 
find  a  cotton-seed  feed,  or  a  corn  and  oat  feed,  or  a  wheat 
admixture,  or  a  molasses  feed,  or  a  feed  mixture  T>eing  offered 
to  the  trade  as  Star  Feed,  Cracker  Feed,  Balanced  Feed,  Patchen 
Feed,  Best  Feed,  Union  Feed,  Dixie  Feed,  etc.  The  straight 
feeds  as  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings  (shorts),  corn  chops, 
dried  brewers'  grains,  etc.,  usually  carry  names  that  distinguish 
their  nature. 

So  this  classification  is  not  used  on  feeds  by  the  manufacturer, 
but  by  the  chemist  who  arranges  them  according  to  what  they 
contain  in  the  way  of  natural  and  by-products  feeds.  Some  of 
the  feeds  in  the  table  will  not  be  taken  up  because  we  have  al- 
ready spoken  sufficiently  of  them, 

Cotton-Seed  Meal. — In  the  past  few  years  the  manufacturers 
have  not  always  put  out  this  product  in  its  pure  state,  but  often 


CLASSES    OF    COMMERCIAL    FEEDS 


Name  of  feed 

Protein 
Per  cent. 

Fat 
Per  cent. 

Fiber 
Per  cent. 

4LI5-50 
38.50-41.15 
36-38.50 
38 
35 
32 
32 
25 
25 

22 
22 
22 

18-20 

16-18 
15-17 
17 
15 
14-18 

15 
M 
I3-5-I4 
12-14 

12.5 
12.5 
12.5 

12 
11-12 

11-12 
II 
II 
II 
II 
IO 
IO 
10 
10 

9 
9 
9 
8-5 
7-5-iQ 
5-8 
8 

85 
50 
40 

25 
15 

lo-ir 

5-10 
5-10 
6.5-10 
2 

I 

10 

6 

3 

i 

5 
5 

10 

5 
5 
4-5 
4-5 
7 

10 

4 
3 
4 
i-5 
3-5 
4 
3 
7-10 

2 

8 

4-5 
3-5 
4 

2 

i-5 
r-5 

7-5 
3-5 

365 
5 
3-5 
3-3 
3-5 

2 

0.3 

0.2 

15 
10 

4-5 
3 

7 

10 

ii 
9 

2 

9-5 
9 
7-5 
12.5 

12 
22 

9-5 
3-5 

8-5 

10 

2-5 
15 
H 
4 
15 
29-30 

13 
5 

10 

25 

2-4 

12-14 

14 

10 

6 
6 

4-5 

10 

6 
5-5 

IO 
2 
2-5 

8-1  1 
20-26 
18 

*8 
4 

Gluten  feed.*         • 

\Vheat  middlings  (standard)  

Wheat  mixed  feed  (bran  and  shorts) 

Klax  feed 

Rye  feed  

Wheat  admixture  

Wheat  screenings  **• 

Clover  meal  (whole  plant)  

Molasses  dry  horse  or  rnule  or  ox 
feed 

Feed  mixture  (horse  or  mule  or  ox) 

Mixed  oats  and  barley  •  •      . 

Provender  

Oat  feed  

POULTRY  FEEDS 

Mash  and  meal  

Hen,  chick,  scratching  and  pigeon 

92         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

grind  cotton-seed  hulls  and  mix  them  with  the  meal  and  sell  the 
product  as  cotton-seed  meal.  These  hulls  are  ground  so  fine 
that  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the  extent  of  their  presence  with 
the  naked  eye.  Sometimes  a  meal  is  of  high-grade  (44-49  per 
cent,  protein)  and  the  hulls  are  added  to  bring  down  the  pro- 
tein content  to  the  guarantee  of  say  41  per  cent,  protein. 

Commercial  Classification. — The  Inter-State  Cotton-Seed  Crush- 
ers' Association  composed  of  those  interested  or  dealing  in 
cotton-seed  products,  holds  annual  sessions  and  sets  standards 
and  regulations  for  these  commodities.  The  following  is  the 
last  standard  classification  adopted  by  this  association  for  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Choice  Cotton-Seed  Meal  must  be  finely  ground,  perfectly  sound 
and  sweet  in  odor,  yellow,  free  from  excess  of  lint,  and  by 
analysis  must  contain  8  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  or  49  per  cent,  of 
combined  protein  and  fat. 

Prime  Cotton-Seed  Meal  must  be  finely  ground,  of  sweet  odor, 
reasonably  bright  in  color,  yellow,  not  brown  or  reddish,  free 
from  lint,  and  by  analysis  must  contain  at  least  7^/2  per  cent,  of 
ammonia,  or  46  per  cent,  of  combined  protein  and  fat. 

Good  Cotton-Seed  Meal  must  be  finely  ground,  of  sweet  odor, 
reasonably  bright  in  color,  and  by  analysis  must  contain  at  least 
7  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  or  43  per  cent,  of  combined  protein 
and  fat. 

Chemical  Classification. — The  writer  uses  the  following  classi- 
fication. The  protein  equivalents  of  the  ammonia  standards  are 
taken  instead  of  combining  the  protein  and  fat.  The  color,  odor 
and  fat  contents  are  not  considered  because  the  purchaser  can 
easily  distinguish  a  meal  that  is  off  in  color  and  odor  and  most 
of  the  meal  contains  enough  fat  for  feeding  purposes. 

Choice  Cotton-Seed  Meal  calls  for  8  per  cent,  ammonia,  which 
is  equivalent  to  41.15  per  cent,  of  protein;  that  is,  all  meals  car- 
rying 41.15  per  cent,  protein  or  over  are  called  choice. 

Prime  Cotton-Seed  Meals  are  those  carrying  7.5  per  cent,  am- 
monia, which  is  equivalent  to  38.5  per  cent,  protein.  Hence 
all  meals  between  38.5  and  41.15  per  cent,  protein  are  prime. 

Good  Cotton-Seed  Meal  carries  7  per  cent,  ammonia,  which  is 


CLASSES    OF    COMMERCIAL    FEEDS 


93 


equivalent  to  36  per  cent,  protein.     Meals  between  36  and  38.5 
per  cent,  protein  are  good. 

For  feeding  purposes  a  bright  yellow  meal  free  from  an  excess 
of  lint  and  hulls,  and  sweet  in  odor,  should  be  selected.  The 
dark  color  of  cotton-seed  meal  may  be  due  to  careless  handling 
and  storage,  fermentation  before  the  seed  is  treated  in  the  oil 
mill,  or  to  overheating  in  cooking.  These  causes  tend  to  lower 
the  digestibility  or  palatability  of  the  feed. 

The  manufacturers  sell  these  three  classes  as  cotton-seed  meal 
and  not  as  choice,  prime  and  good.  The  chemist  makes  these 
distinctions. 

COMPOSITION  OF  COTTON-SEED  MEAI, 


Class 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 
samples 

43-  I  2 
39-87 
37.26 

8.92 
8.58 
9.28 

25.69 
27.23 
28.13 

8.08 
9.86 
11.14 

7.62 
7-8l 
7-50 

6-57 
6.65 
6.69 

1192 

651 
116 

Good  

A  decrease  in  protein  is  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  nitro- 
gen free  extract  and  fiber. 

Cotton-Seed  Feed. — Those  cotton-seed  meals  falling  below  36 
per  cent,  protein  are  classed  as  cotton-seed  feeds.  These  feeds 
are  made  up  of  varying  quantities  of  cotton-seed  meal,  lint  and 
hulls.  If  such  a  feed  is  desired  it  is  perhaps  cheaper  for  the 
feeder  to  purchase  the  meal  and  hulls  separately  and  mix  them 
himself.  Cotton-seed  feeds  are,  as  a  class,  more  expensive  than 
cotton-seed  meal,  for  the  amount  of  protein  received.  The  range 
of  the  feeds  of  this  class  is  generally  from  18  to  36  per  cent, 
protein,  4  to  10  per  cent,  fat  and  n  to  26  per  cent,  fiber. 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  COTTON-SEED  FEED 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 
Samples 

Cotton-seed  feed  .  • 

28.50 

6.8l 

32.71 

18.32 

8.06 

5.60 

48 

94         ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


There  are  some  feeds  sold  that  have  the  following  approxi- 
mate composition. 


Protein 

Fat 

(ether 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

Per  cent. 

extract) 

tract 

Per  cent. 

Percent. 

Pet  cent, 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

5' 

16 

2A 

8 

c 

o^ 

Rice  Bran. — Sometimes  rice  hulls  are  introduced  into  this  feed 
and  the  resulting  product  is  sold  as  rice  bran.  The  presence  of 
rice  hulls,  when  unground,  is  easy  to  detect  with  the  naked  eye, 
and  when  the  per  cent,  of  hulls  is  high,  the  feed  should  not  be 
used,  as  the  rice  hulls  may  be  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs 
of  the  animal  to  which  the  mixture  is  fed.  A  rice  bran  should 
smell  sweet  and  one  that  has  a  rancid  odor  should  be  avoided. 
A  high  fat  content,  which  is  usually  the  cause  of  rancidity,  is 
thought  to  retard  digestion.  Good  rice  bran  should  contain 
12.50  per  cent,  protein  and  not  over  10  per  cent,  fiber  or  ash. 
COMPOSITION  OF  RICE  BRAN  AND  HULLS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Fat 

Nitrogen 

Protein 

(ether 

free  ex- 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

extract) 

tract 

IO 

IO 

Rice  bran  (673  samples)  •  . 

T>  ipp  llllllq 

11.91 

10.83 

OAQ 

44.06 

26  86 

12.95 

41  89 

10.27 

8  Q7 

9.98 

18  29 

u.y/ 

Rice  Polish. — The  best  rice  polish  is  a  pure  white  powdery 
substance  free  from  grits  and  rice  hulls.  The  rice  hulls  are 
easily  detected,  and  the  grits  when  present  may  be  found  by 
rubbing  a  small  portion  between  the  fingers.  The  grits  are  not 
very  objectionable  as  they  are  never  present  in  great  amounts, 
as  a  higher  price  is  obtained  for  grits  from  the  brewers.  The 
only  objection  to  grits  is  that  they  are  small  and  hard  and  are 
apt  to  escape  mastication  and  digestion.  Rice  hulls  are  only 
occasionally  present  in  polish  and  then  only  in  small  amounts. 
Sometimes  rice  polish  has  a  red  cast  due  to  the  presence  of 


CLASSES    OF    COMMERCIAL    FEEDS  95 

red  rice,  a  weed  which  grows  in  the  rice  field,  but  the  amount 


Fig.  9.— Honduras  and  Japan  rice. 

present    does    not   materially    lower   the    feeding   value   of   this 
product. 


g6      ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


COMPOSITION  OF  RICE  POLISH 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 

samples 

11.94 

8.30 

63.01 

1.90 

10-33 

4-52 

386 

In  the  above  samples  of  rice  polish  the  protein  varied  from 
10  to  15.5  per  cent.,  the  fat  from  4.5  to  14.3  per  cent,  and  the 
fiber  from  0.4  to  5.0  per  cent. 

Wheat  Mixed  Feed  is  a  mixture  of  wheat  bran  and  wheat 
middlings  in  varying  proportions  and  it  should  contain  16  per 
cent,  of  protein.  This  feed  is  sometimes  called  shipstuff,  al- 
though this  latter  name  is  applied  to  any  wheat  feed,  ground 
fine. 

ANALYSES  OF  SOME  PURE  WHEAT  PRODUCTS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Class 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 
samples 

Wheat  bran 

16  2  1 

4.  10 

fi 

Q  06 

1O  2^ 

6  42 

o 

Wheat  middlings.  • 

17.57 

4.52 

57.27 

5.60 

10.50 

4-54 

506 

Wheat  mixed  feed. 

17.08 

4.01 

55.59 

7.61 

10.30 

5-41 

52 

Wheat  Admixtures  are  made  up  of  wheat  products,  corn, 
ground  corn  cobs,  corn  bran,  rice  products,  oat  hulls,  ground 
peanut  hulls,  etc.  A  wheat  admixture  is  not  sold  under  this 
name  but  as  mixed  feed,  shipstuff,  or  under  some  trade  name 
as  Dixie  Feed,  etc.,  and  for  example  may  contain  wheat  screen- 
ings, ground  wheat  bran,  corn  bran  and  rice  bran. 

In  purchasing  this  class  of  feed  the  consumer  generally  pays 
almost  as  much  as  for  the  genuine  wheat  products.  Most  of 
these  feeds  are  so  finely  ground  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  distinguish  them  from  wheat  shorts,  unless  the  purchaser 
is  very  familiar  with  the  physical  appearance  of  wheat  products. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  these  feeds  are  sold  as  pure 


CLASSES    OF    COMMERCIAL 


97 


wheat  products.  These  feeds  are  too  expensive  for  the  eco- 
nomical feeder.  Wheat  feeds  should  be  avoided  that  are  guar- 
anteed to  contain  less  than  15  per  cent,  protein. 

AVERAGE  ANALYSIS  OF  WHEAT  ADMIXTURE 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 
samples 

Wheat  admixture  . 

13.06 

4.06 

53.89 

12-34 

9.85 

6.80 

506 

SECTION  XVIII. 


CLASSES  OF  COMMERCIAL  FEEDS— Continued 
Corn  Chops,  as  found  on  the  American  market,  are  the  cracked 
grains  of  corn.  Some  of  this  feed  is  made  up  of  inferior  corn 
and  sometimes  may  contain  ground  corn  cobs.  To  be  of  good 
standard  quality  this  feed  should  contain  9  per  cent,  protein, 
should  be  free  from  fermentation  and  adulteration,  should  smell 
sweet  and  look  clean,  and  be  made  from  sound  grains  of  corn. 
A  close  physical  examination  will  reveal  the  quality  of  this 
material  to  a  great  extent. 

AVERAGE  ANALYSIS  OF  CORN  CHOPS 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 
samples 

37Q 

2  l6 

II  28 

T  78 

•  iy 

•/v 

1.50 

uozV 

Mixed  Oats  and  Barley.— On  account  of  the  high  price  of  oats, 
barley  (which  is  cheaper  and  heavier)  is  often  mixed  with  oats 
and  sold  as  No.  2  oats  or  as  mixed  oats  and  barley.  Much 
of  this  class  of  goods  is  made  of  inferior  oats,  5  to  40  per  cent, 
of  barley,  and  sometimes  contains  weed  seeds.  The  barley  grain 
is  smaller  than  the  oat  grain  and  can  be  easily  detected.  The 
off  grade  oats  may  be  distinguished  by  their  color  or  their 
shrunken  or  shriveled  appearance.  The  presence  of  weed  seeds 
is  easily  noticed. 

ANALYSES  OF  OATS,  BARLEY  AND  MIXED  OATS  AND  BARLEY 


Composition  in  per  cent. 


Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 

samples 

Oats  

II  8 

CQ  7 

9r 

1  1  O 

T  2  A 

i  8 

OV'/ 

69  8 

•o 

27 

.u 
2  A 

Mixed  oats  and 
barley  

10  84 

a  68 

64  06 

o  8 

i«j.y 
8  1 

*•** 

3r  2 

AJA 

^.uo 

y.o 

•O* 

CLASSES  OF  COMMERCIAL 


99 


Corn  and  Oat  Feeds. — These  feeds,  sometimes  called  chop 
feeds,  are  made  up  of  factory  products  or  waste  products, 
with  corn  and  oats.  Many  of  these  feeds  contain  oat  hulls 
and  most  of  them  carry  i  to  2  per  cent,  salt  to  make  them  more 
palatable. 

Provender  is  a  name  used  in  the  New  England  States  for 
feeds  composed  of  ground  corn  and  oats. 

Fortified  Oat  Feed. — A  feed  is  said  to  be  fortified  when  some 
protein  concentrate  (highly  nitrogenous  feed)  is  added  to  it. 
Hence  fortified  oat  feed  is  made  up  of  oat  feed  and  some  pro- 
tein concentrate. 

ANALYSES  OF  OATS,  CORN,  OAT  HULLS  AND  CORN  AND  OAT  FEED 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

No.  of 
samples 

Oats 

ii.  8 
10.3 
3-3 
8.57 

5 

5 

3.82 

59-7 
70.4 
52.1 
64.63 

9-5 
2.2 
29.7 

9-77 

II.  0 
10.6 

7.3 
9.69 

3-0 

i-5 

6.7 
3-52 

1,256 

Oorti 

Oat  liulls  

Corn  and  oat  feed. 

Molasses  Feeds  are  sometimes  called  sugar  feeds  or  molasses 
grains.  There  are  many  combinations  of  materials  introduced 
in  these  feeds,  governed  principally  by  the  intelligence  and  hon- 
esty of  the  manufacturers.  The  location,  demand,  ease  of  ob- 
taining, and  price  of  the  feeding  materials  that  go  to  make  up 
the  finished  product  are  also  important  considerations  in  the 
selection. 

Products  Used. — Cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  malt  sprouts, 
dried  brewers'  grains,  distillery  products,  rice  products,  corn 
products,  ground  corn  cobs,  ground  corn  stalks,  corn  pith,  wheat 
products  (generally  wheat  screenings),  dried  beet  pulp,  oats 
(generally  off  grade),  oat  hulls,  barley  products,  buckwheat 
products,  finely  ground  or  chopped  hay  (usually  leguminous 
hays,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  etc.),  straw,  flax  feed,  elevator  dust 
(including  grain  smut,  all  sorts  of  brushings  and  cleanings,  such  as 
dust,  grain  rust,  etc.),  sweepings,  grain  screenings,  refuse  from 


IOO      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


flouring  mills,  cockle  seeds  and  bran,  ground  peanut  hulls,  weed 
seeds  (ground  and  unground),  chaff  from  pipe  factories  and 
similar  products  together  with  beet,  cane  and  sorghum  mo- 
lasses are  used  in  these  feeds  in  varying  proportions.  Some  of 
the  molasses  feeds  contain  beet  or  cane  molasses  entirely.  When 
beet  molasses  is  used  it  is  generally  accompanied  with  a  small 
amount  of  cane  molasses  and  occasionally  sorghum  molasses, 
to  give  the  feed  a  pleasant  aroma.  In  most  of  these  feeds,  es- 
pecially those  manufactured  in  the  North,  beet  molasses  pre- 
dominates. The  quantity  of  molasses  employed  in  these  feeds 
varies  from  10  to  60  per  cent.  About  i  per  cent,  of  salt  is 
added  to  improve  the  palatability. 

Classes  of  Molasses  Feeds. — Those  feeds  carrying  25  per  cent, 
or  more  of  molasses  are  usually  classed  as  wet  feeds  (provided 
they  are  not  artificially  dried),  and  those  containing  less  than 
25  per  cent,  of  molasses  are  termed  dry  feeds.  There  are  many 
feeds  that  contain  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  molasses  which  are 
subjected  to  a  drying  process  and  these  are  classed  as  dry  feeds. 

Wet  Molasses  Feeds  are  generally  sticky  and  of  darker  color 
than  other  molasses  feeds,  due  to  the  large  amount  of  molasses 
present. 

ANALYSES  OF  WET  MOLASSES  FEEDS  IN  PER  CENT. 


I 

ii 

III 

IV 

V 

1  1  60 

12  88 

I  ^  Q^ 

6   ^2 

15  60 

Kther  extract  (fat)  

OCA 

O  7  A 

2  7C 

I7Q 

1  82 

41  11 

16  Q4 

4Q  4^ 

r  r    Q2 

AC    72 

Fjber  

^OOo 
I  Q  21 

21    l6 

10  86 

14  Q7 

12  or 

Water  

'y-^j 
1641 

l8  47 

1  6  10 

14  2O 

16  6=; 

Ash  

8  80 

Q  8l 

4  8q 

10  60 

6  60 

Note  the  high  water  content  in  all  of  these  feeds.  The  ether 
extract  is  low  in  all  but  sample  No.  5. 

Horse  and  Dairy  Feeds. — There  are  two  general  classes  of 
molasses  feeds  sold  to  our  feeders,  namely,  horse  feeds  and 
dairy  feeds.  Molasses  feeds  for  other  classes  of  live  stock  are 
also  manufactured,  but  these  are  exceptional. 

The  dry  molasses  dairy  feeds  found  on  the  American  market 
usually  contain  from  14  to  18  per  cent,  protein,  3  to  7  per  cent. 


CLASSES  OF  COMMERCIAL  FEEDS 


IOI 


fat,  8  to  20  per  cent,  fiber,  7  to  12  per  cent,  water  and  44  to  54 
per  cent,  nitrogen  free  extract.  In  other  words  these  feeds  run 
high  in  protein.  The  dry  molasses  horse  or  mule  feeds  carry 
more  nitrogen  free  extract  and  less  protein  than  the  dry  dairy 
feeds.  The  protein  generally  varies  from  8.5  to  14  per  cent., 
fat  1.5  to  8  per  cent.,  fiber  6  to  20  per  cent.,  water  8  to  13 
per  cent.,  and  nitrogen  free  extract  40  to  62  per  cent. 

APPROXIMATE  AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AMERICAN  DRY 
MOLASSES  FEEDS 


Composition  in  per  cent, 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

T)airv 

16.38 
U-95 

4.31 
4.80 

49.26 
51.40 

12-33 
13.03 

10.50 
11.62 

7.20 

7.22 

Horse 

There  are  many  excellent  molasses  feeds  on  our  markets  free 
from  adulteration,  but  the  molasses  offers  an  excellent  chance 
for  the  use  and  concealment  of  inferior  products. 

Feed  Mixtures. — Under  this  head  come  those  feeds  which  are 
made  up  of  mixtures  of  alfalfa,  dried  brewers'  grains,  corn 
products,  oat  products,  gluten  feed,  wheat  products,  rice  prod- 
ucts, barley  products,  cotton  seed  products,  flaxseed  products, 
etc.  Most  of  these  feeds  have  alfalfa,  corn  products  and  oat 
products  present  and  may  contain  one  or  more  other  ingredients. 
As  in  molasses  feeds,  the  best  grades  of  primary  products  are 
not  always  used,  and  materials  as  oat  hulls,  off  grade  oats  and 
off  grade  corn  are  sometimes  found  in  these  feed  mixtures. 
They  are  sometimes  called  proprietary  feeds  because  the  name 
of  the  feed  does  not  indicate  the  ingredients  present.  The  prin- 
cipal classes  of  feed  mixtures  are,  horse  or  mule  or  ox  feeds 
and  dairy  feeds.  A  few  calf  feeds  are  also  on  our  markets. 
The  horse,  mule  and  ox  feeds  are  the  most  common,  and  usually 
run  from  9  to  13  per  cent,  protein,  3  to  6  per  cent,  fat  and  6 
to  18  per  cent,  fiber  The  dairy  feeds  generally  vary  from  13.5 
to  20  per  cent,  protein,  3.5  to  5.5  per  cent,  fat  and  10  to  15 
per  cent,  fiber. 


IO2      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 

APPROXIMATE  AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEED  MIXTURES 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

14.0 
II.  0 

4.0 
3-5 

52.8 

57-7 

15 

14 

9 
9 

5:1 

The  protein,  fat  and  fiber  contents  are  generally  less  and  the 
nitrogen  free  extract  more  in  the  horse  than  the  dairy  feeds. 
Most  of  these  feeds  contain  salt  in  small  amounts  and  are  sold 
under  trade  names. 

Poultry  Feeds  are  composed  of  mixtures  of  corn  (whole  or 
cracked),  Kaffir  corn,  wheat,  wheat  by-products,  broken  rice, 
oats,  oat  refuse,  cotton  seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  ground  legum- 
inous hay  (usually  alfalfa  and  sometimes  clover),  peas,  millet 
seeds,  rye,  sunflower  seeds,  barley,  flax  seeds,  molasses,  weed 
seeds,  animal  by-products,  sweepings,  shells,  grit,  charcoal,  some- 
times salt  and  other  products  and  waste  products. 

These  feeds  should  be  purchased  on  the  protein  content,  as 
this  nutrient  is  generally  what  poultry  require.  Kggs  are  made 
up  largely  of  protein  and  the  common  food  given  to  poultry  is 
generally  lacking  in  this  constituent.  Shells,  grit,  and  charcoal 
are  present  in  some  of  these  feeds  and  usually  these  materials 
can  be  purchased  cheaper  by  themselves  than  in  a  poultry  food. 
The  per  cent,  of  ash  is  an  indication  of  the  shell  and  grit  con- 
tent, and  these  feeds  should  not  carry  over  6  per  cent.  ash. 
Unground  weed  seeds  are  sometimes  found  in  these  feeds.  Such 
material  should  not  be  used  in  these  mixtures,  as  they  are  a 
means  of  scattering  weeds  all  over  the  country.  Some  brands 
contain  sweepings  and  the  consumer  should  not  purchase  such 
adulterated  feeds,  but  should  demand  a  cleaner  article. 

A  close  physical  examination  will  reveal  a  great  deal  as  to 
the  character  of  these  feeds.  Avoid  feeds  which  contain  sweep- 
ings, grit,  and  an  excess  of  shells,  and  purchase  only  those  feeds 
which  smell  sweet  and  show  a  good  clean  appearance. 


CLASSES  OF  COMMERCIAL 


I03 


Most  of  our  poultry  foods  are  sweet  and  clean  but  a  few 
always  carry  sweepings,  shells  and  charcoal. 

Classes  of  Poultry  Feeds. — The  principal  classes  of  poultry 
feeds  are;  i.  Hen  feed.  2.  Chick  feed  or  scratching  grains. 
3.  Pigeon  feed.  4.  Mash. 

Hen  feed  is  usually  composed  of  cracked  corn,  some  of  the 
coarser  parts  or  whole  seeds  and  may  contain  shells,  grit  and 
charcoal.  Chick  feeds  are  similar  to  hen  feeds  except  the  prod- 
uct is  in  a  finer  mechanical  condition.  Pigeon  feed  is  generally 
not  so  coarse  as  chick  feed  and  may  contain  the  same  materials. 
Mash  is  a  variable  product  depending  upon  the  materials  of 
which  it  is  composed.  It  usually  contains  alfalfa  or  clover 
meal,  corn  product,  oat  product,  meat  scraps  or  other  animal 
by-product,  weed  seeds,  etc.  It  may  contain  some  of  other 
materials  as  linseed  meal,  flax  feed,  wheat  products,  etc.  The 
mash  is  characterized  by  carrying  more  protein  than  the  other 
mentioned  feeds. 

APPROXIMATE  AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  POUI/TRY  FEEDS 


• 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

Hen  

II 
II 
II 
15 

3 
3 
3 
4-5 

67 
67 
67 
52.5 

4 
4 
4 
8 

10 
10 
IO 
IO 

5 
5 
5 

IO 

Chick   

Mash  

The  animal  by-products  mentioned  previously  are  used  a  great 
deal  in  poultry  feeding. 

Alfalfa  and  Clover  Meal. — The  cured  hays  of  alfalfa  and  clover 
are  ground  and  put  upon  the  market  as  alfalfa  and  clover  meal. 
They  may  be  very  finely  ground  but  generally  the  hay  is  cut  in  T/s 
to  y2  inch  lengths.  The  manufacturers  usually  buy  these  hays 
baled  and  grind  them  at  their  mills.  A  great  deal  of  alfalfa 
is  consumed  as  chopped  alfalfa  and  alfalfa  meal  in  mixed  com- 
mercial feeds.  Alfalfa  seems  to  be  very  popular  with  the  Ameri- 


IO4      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


can  feeders  and  they  often  demand  that  it  be  present  in  the 
feeds  they  purchase. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ALFALFA  AND  CLOVER  MEAL 


Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 

(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

Alfalfa  

14 
12 

2 
2 

36 
40.5 

29 
27 

10 
10 

9 
8-5 

SECTION  XIX. 


FEED  STUFF  LAWS  AND  FEED  ADULTERANTS 

Importance  of  State  Feed  Laws.— On  account  of  the  adultera- 
tion of  commercial  feed  stuffs  many  of  our  states  have  passed 
laws  to  protect  the  consumers  of  these  commodities.  The  en- 
forcement of  these  laws  is  generally  controlled  by  the  Experi- 
ment Stations  or  the  State  Boards  of  Agriculture,  through  a 
staff  of  chemists  and  inspectors.  The  inspectors  draw  samples 
of  the  various  feeds  and  the  chemists  analyze  them  to  find  out  if 
they  are  as  represented.  The  results  of  the  chemists'  findings  are 
published  in  bulletins  which  are  sent  out  to  the  farmers,  manu- 
facturers and  other  interested  parties. 

These  laws  require  the  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  these 
materials  "to  state  what  they  sell  and  sell  what  they  state."  In 
other  words  they  are  forced  to  guarantee  their  products.  Ex- 
ample, John  Doe  is  manufacturing  and  selling  cotton  seed  meal. 
Before  he  is  allowed  to  sell  his  cotton  seed  meal  he  must  have 
printed  on  the  sacks,  or  on  tags  attached  to  the  sacks,  the  com- 
position of  the  cotton  seed  meal,  the  weight  of  the  package,  the 
name,  brand,  or  trade  mark,  and  the  manufacturer's  or  dealer's 
name  and  address.  Let  us  suppose  that  John  Doe  has  printed  on 
his  sacks  the  following;  protein  40  per  cent.,  fat  9  per  cent., 
carbohydrates  24  per  cent,  and  fiber  10  per  cent. ;  weight  100 
Ibs. ;  cotton  seed  meal ;  manufactured  by  John  Doe,  Memphis, 
Tenn.  Such  a  statement  is  the  guarantee.  The  weight  of  the 
package  is  a  good  requirement  in  such  laws  because  the  pur- 
chaser is  enabled  to  tell  just  the  amount  contained  in  the  pack- 
age. Some  feeds  are  put  up  in  90  pound  sacks,  for  most  pur- 
chasers will  take  it  for  granted  that  all  feeds  are  sold  in  lots  of 
75  or  100  pounds  or  more.  Feeds  put  up  in  irregular  weights 
are  generally  sold  per  sack  and  not  by  weight.  The  guarantee 
then  protects  the  consumer. 

Comparison  of  Some  of  the  Requirements  of  Feed  Laws. — Har- 
ris in  a  discussion  of  feed  stuff  laws  says:  "Suppose  we  take, 
for  instance,  the  main  feature  of  every  feed  law — the  guaranteed 
chemical  analysis — and  see  if  any  uniformity  exists  here.  Cer- 
8 


io6    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE;  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

tainly  not.  One  state  requires  a  guarantee  of  protein  and  fat; 
a  sister  state,  the  minimum  per  cent,  of  protein  and  fat,  and  adds 
the  maximum  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber;  another  state  will  add  to 
this  carbohydrates;  another  starch  and  sugar,  and  Michigan 
adds  nitrogen  free  extract. 

"So  it  seems  that  there  is  not  even  an  attempt  at  uniformity  in 
the  main  feature  of  these  laws.  Some  states  require  a  license 
tax  (i.e.  a  stipulated  amount  per  brand  per  year).  One  state 
requires  a  license  and  a  tonnage  tax  (i.  c.  a  brand  tax  and  a  tax 
on  every  ton  or  part  of  a  ton  sold  in  the  state).  Some  states 
exempt  certain  feeds  from  a  license  fee  or  tonnage  tax ;  others 
do  not.  Some  states  require  standard  weight  bags ;  others  do 
not.  Where  standard  weight  bags  are  required,  they  differ  in 
different  states  (a  75  pound  bag  of  feed  can  be  sold  in  Tennessee, 
but  not  in  North  Carolina).  Some  states  require  the  ingredients 
to  be  registered  with  the  state  authorities  enforcing  the  law. 
Some  states  have  a  standard  analysis  for  different  feeds;  others 
do  not.  The  state  of  Mississippi,  for  example,  requires  that  a 
feed  must  contain  at  least  13.5  per  cent,  of  crude  fat  and  protein 
together ;  no  feed  carrying  less  than  3.5  per  cent,  fat  can  be  sold ; 
all  ordinary  feeds  must  not  contain  over  12  per  cent,  crude  fiber 
except  when  branded  "Cow  &  Ox  Feed,"  if  such  feeds  contain 
cotton  seed  or  its  by-products.  Some  states  have  a  provision  in 
the  law  that  where  a  feed  is  found  misbranded  or  adulterated 
it  can  be  siezed,  pending  an  investigation;  other  states  have  no 
provision  of  this  kind.  There  are  a  number  of  states  that  im- 
pose a  fine  of  from  $200  to  $500  on  a  manufacturer  whose  feed 
fails  to  come  up  to  the  guarantee  claimed  for  it,  and  fine  him 
$25  to  $100  for  adulterating."  Some  states  prohibit  the  sale  of 
feeds  containing  oat  hulls,  rice  hulls,  peanut  hulls,  corn  cobs, 
and  similar  materials.  Many  states  do  not  eliminate  these  sub- 
stances. 

Uniform  Feed  Stuff  Law. — On  account  of  the  lack  of  uni- 
formity of  the  several  state  feed  stuff  laws  there  has  been  a  great 
deal  of  agitation  among  those  interested  in  feed  stuff  trade,  and 
a  movement  has  been  started  to  pass  a  standard  feed  stuff  law. 
The  American  Feed  Manufacturers'  Association  and  state  con- 


FEED  STUFF  LAWS  AND  FEED   ADULTERANTS  IO7 

trol  officials  met  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  Sept.  1909  to  discuss 
and  if  possible  draw  up  a  uniform  feed  stuff  law  satisfactory  to 
all  parties  concerned  in  this  business.  The  results  of  this  meet- 
ing brought  out  the  following,  that  the  purchaser  should  know : — 

1.  The  name,  brand  or  trade  mark. 

2.  The  weight  of  the  package. 

3.  The  principal   address   and  name  of  the   manufacturer  or 
jobber  responsible  for  placing  the  feed  on  the  market. 

4.  The  chemical  analysis  as, 

Minimum  per  cent,  of  crude  protein. 
Minimum  per  cent,  of  crude  fat. 
Maximum  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber. 

5.  If  a  compounded  or  mixed  feed,  the  specific  name  of  each 
ingredient  of  which  it  is  made  up. 

Tentative  Definitions  of  Feed  Stuffs  Recommended  by  the 
Feed  Control  Officials 

Meal  is  the  clean,  sound,  ground  product  of  the  entire  grain, 
cereal  or  seed  which  it  purports  to  represent.  Provided,  that 
the  following  meals,  qualified  by  their  descriptive  names  are 
to  be  known  as,  viz :  Corn  germ  meal  is  a  product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  starch,  glucose  and  other  corn  products  and  is  the 
germ  layer  from  which  a  part  of  the  corn  oil  has  been  extracted. 
Cotton-seed  meal  is  the  meal  obtained  from  the  cotton-seed 
kernel  after  extraction  of  part  of  the  oil  and  contains  not  less 
than  38.50  per  cent,  of  crude  protein.  Linseed  meal  is  the 
ground  residue  after  extraction  of  part  of  the  oil  from  ground 
flaxseed.  Bolted  corn  meal  is  the  entire  ground  product  of 
corn,  bolted. 

Grits  are  the  hard,  flinty  portions  of  Indian  corn. 

Hominy  meal,  feed  or  chop  is  the  bran  coating  and  germ  of 
the  corn  kernel  and  may  contain  a  part  of  the  starchy  portion 
of  the  kernel. 

Corn  feed  meal  is  the  sifting  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
cracked  corn  and  table  meal  made  from  the  whole  grain. 

Gluten  meal  is  a  product  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  starch 
and  glucose  from  corn  and  is  the  flinty  portion  of  the  kernel  which 


108      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

lies  in  its  outer  circumference  just  beneath  the  hull.  If  the  meal 
is  derived  from  any  other  cereal,  the  source  must  be  designated. 

Corn  bran  is  the  outer  coating  of  the  corn  kernel. 

Gluten  feed  is  a  product  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  starch 
and  glucose  from  corn  and  is  a  mixture  of  gluten  meal  and  corn 
bran  to  which  may  be  added  the  residue  resulting  from  the 
evaporation  of  the  so-called  "steep-water."  If  derived  from  any 
other  cereal,  the  source  must  be  designated. 

Wheat  bran  is  the  coarse  outer  coating  of  the  wheat  berry. 

Shorts  or  standard  middlings  are  the  fine  particles  of  the  outer 
bran  as  well  as  the  inner  or  "bee-wing"  bran  separated  from  the 
bran  and  white  middlings. 

Shipstuff  or  wheat  mixed  feed  is  a  mixture  of  the  by-products 
from  the  milling  of  the  wheat  berry. 

White  wheat  middlings  are  that  part  of  the  offal  from  wheat 
left  after  separating  it  from  the  bran  and  the  shorts  or  standard 
middlings. 

Red  dog  is  a  low-grade  wheat  flour  containing  the  finer  parti- 
cles of  bran. 

Oat  Groats  are  the  kernels  of  the  oat  berry  with  the  hulls  re- 
moved. 

Oat  shorts  or  oat  middlings  are  the  starchy  portion  of  the  oat 
groats  obtained  in  the  milling  of  rolled  oats. 

Oat  hulls  are  the  outer  covering  of  the  oat  grain. 

Oat  clippings  are  the  small  hairs,  dust  and  ends  of  oats 
separated  from  the  oats  in  the  clipping  process  and  may  con- 
tain light  oats  and  oat  hulls. 

Rice  bran  is  the  inner  cuticle  of  the  rice  hull. 

Rice  polish  is  the  flour  secured  from  the  surface  of  the  rice 
kernels  in  polishing. 

Rice  meal  or  flour  is  the  clean  ground  rice. 

Rice  hulls  are  the  outer  covering  of  the  rice  grain. 

Flaxseed  meal  is  the  entire  flaxseed  ground. 

Flax  plant  refuse  is  the  flax  shives,  flax  pods,  inferior  flax 
seeds  and  the  woody  portion  of  the  flax  plant  or  any  of  the  above 
materials. 


FEED  STUFF   LAWS  AND  FEED   ADULTERANTS  IOC) 

Buckwheat  shorts  or  middlings  are  that  portion  of  the  buck- 
wheat grain  immediately  inside  of  the  hull  after  separation  from 
the  flour. 

Blood  meal  is  finely  ground  dried  blood. 

Meat  meal  is  finely  ground  beef  scraps.  If  it  bears  a  name 
descriptive  of  its  kind,  composition  or  origin,  it  must  correspond 
thereto. 

Cracklings  are  the  residue  after  extracting  the  fats  and  oils 
from  the  animal  tissue.  If  it  bears  a  name  descriptive  of  its 
kind,  composition  or  origin,  it  must  correspond  thereto. 

Digester  tankage  is  meat  scraps  from  edible  carcasses  which 
have  been  inspected  and  passed  as  satisfactory  for  human  con- 
sumption, especially  prepared  for  feeding  purposes  through 
tanking  under  live  steam,  drying  under  high  heat  and  suitable 
grinding. 

Distillers'  dried  grains  are  the  dried  residue  from  cereals  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  and  distilled  liquors.  The 
product  shall  bear  a  designation  indicating  the  cereal  predominat- 
ing. 

Brewers'  dried  grains  are  the  dried  residue  from  cereals  ob- 
tained after  "mashing  and  sparging"  the  malt. 

Malt  sprouts  are  the  sprouts  of  the  barley  grain.  If  the 
sprouts  are  derived  from  any  other  malted  cereal,  the  source  must 
be  designated. 

Cotton-seed  feed  shall  be  a  mixture  of  cotton-seed  meal  and 
cotton-seed  hulls  containing  less  than  38.50  per  cent,  of  crude 
protein  and  shall  be  plainly  marked  "mixture  of  cotton-seed 
meal  and  cotton-seed  hulls." 

Alfalfa  meal  is  the  entire  alfalfa  hay  ground  and  does  not  con- 
tain an  admixture  of  ground  alfalfa  straw  or  other  foreign 
materials. 

Chop  is  a  ground  or  chop  feed  composed  of  one  or  more 
different  cereals  or  by-products  thereof. 

Screenings  are  the  smaller  imperfect  grains,  weed  seeds  and 
other  foreign  materials  having  feeding  value,  separated  in  clean- 


IIO      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

ing  the  grain.  They  shall  be  designated  by  the  name  of  the  seed 
from  which  they  are  derived. 

Barley  bran  is  a  misnomer. 

Cotton-seed  bran  is  a  misnomer. 

Elevator  feed  is  a  misnomer. 

Cotton-seed  meal  feed  is  a  misnomer. 

Cotton-seed  feed  meal  is  a  misnomer. 

Oat  feed  is  a  misnomer  unless  applied  to  whole  ground  oats. 

Flax  feed  is  a  misnomer  unless  applied  to  whole  ground  flax- 
seed. 

Flax  bran  is  a  misnomer. 

Oat  nubbins  is  a  misnomer. 

Buckwheat  feed,  consisting  of  buckwheat  middlings  and  hulls, 
is  a  misnomer. 

Gluten  feed  as  applied  to  distillers'  grains  is  a  misnomer. 

The  Federal  Law. — The  national  pure  food  law  also  protects 
the  purchaser  of  feeds.  All  feeds  that  enter  into  interstate  trade 
are  subject  to  the  requirements  of  this  law.  The  manufacturers 
of  feeds  are  required  to  sell  goods  as  represented  to  satisfy  this 
law.  Example,  a  manufacturer  cannot  sell  a  feed  manufactured  in 
Texas,  in  Arkansas,  labelled  pure  wheat  bran  that  contains  any 
thing  other  than  wheat  bran,  nor  can  he  sell  a  feed  of  a  stated 
chemical  analysis  and  have  it  fall  materially  below  it. 

Low  Grade  By-Product  Feeds. — Some  states,  as  heretofore 
stated,  do  not  permit  the  sale  of  feeds  below  certain  standards. 
There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  advisability 
of  such  prohibition.  Some  claim  such  feeds  should  be  elimina- 
ted so  as  to  furnish  all  purchasers  with  feeds  of  a  so-called  high 
or  standard  grade.  Others  claim  that  a  manufacturer  should  be 
permitted  to  sell  low  grade  feeds  provided  the  ingredients  that 
make  up  the  feed  are  stated  and  there  are  no  injurious  or  poison*- 
ous  materials  present.  We  all  know  that  oat  hulls,  corn  cobs, 
screenings,  cotton  seed  hulls,  etc.,  contain  some  nutritious  mate- 
rial and  many  claim  that  should  the  consumer  wish  to  buy  feeds 
containing  any  of  these  substances  it  is  his  own  privilege  and 
legitimate,  when  they  are  stated  as  being  present.  Other  points 


STUFF   LAWS  AND   FEED   ADULTERANTS  III 

that  are  worth  considering  are,  that  the  prices  of  grains  are 
getting  higher  and  the  population  of  this  country  is  increasing 
so  that  the  feeder  may  be  forced  in  the  future  to  utilize  the 
wastes  and  low  grade  by-products  to  a  certain  extent. 

Adulteration  of  Feeds. — If  it  were  not  for  the  protection  our 
feed  laws  give  us,  we  would  find  it  hard  to  purchase  good 
standard  products.  A  manufacturer  could  easily  adulterate  his 
feed  and  sell  it  for  the  genuine  article  if  he  knew  it  would  not 
be  subject  to  inspection  and  analysis.  For  instance,  a  manu- 
facturer could  easily  introduce  ground  cotton  seed  hulls  into  his 
cotton  seed  meal  and  sell  the  product  with  any  guarantee  he 
pleased.  He  could  sell  this  mixed  product  under  the  name  of 
cotton  seed  meal,  when  in  reality  it  is  cotton  seed  meal  and 
ground  cotton  seed  hulls  (cotton  seed  feed).  Of  course  the 
manufacturer  could  afford  to  sell  the  mixed  product  at  a  lower 
price  than  pure  cotton  seed  meal,  but  for  the  nutrients-  received 
the  purchaser  would  perhaps  pay  much  more  than  for  cotton 
seed  meal.  Many  of  the  laws  permit  manufacturers  to  sell  low 
grade  products  provided  they  are  not  injurious,  but  require  that 
the  true  name  or  a  trade  name  be  employed.  Perhaps  the  manu- 
facturer would  not  care  to  put  out  a  mixture  of  cotton  seed  meal 
and  cotton  seed  hulls  and  label  it  so,  but  he  would  rather  give  it 
a  trade  or  brand  name,  as  Cracker  Feed. 

Values  of  Low  Grade  Feeds. — The  purchasers  of  low  grade 
feeds  should  know  their  values.  The  Experiment  Stations  or 
the  State  Boards  of  Agriculture  are  continually  sending  out 
bulletins  which  comment  and  set  forth  the  values  of  commercial 
feeds  so  there  is  no  excuse  for  a  feeder,  in  states  having  feed 
laws,  allowing  a  spurious  article  to  be  sold  to  him.  In  all  feeds 
the  principles  as  cited  are  true.  It  is  unfortunate  but  possible, 
for  manufacturers  to  put  out  feeds  that  resemble  standard 
products,  which  are  badly  adulterated.  These  adulterated  feeds 
are  generally  ground  so  fine  that  the  casual  observer  would  not 
notice  the  adulteration. 

Feed  Adulterants. — In  some  of  our  molasses  feeds,  wheat  ad- 
mixtures, corn  and  oat  feeds,  feed  mixtures,  cotton  seed  feeds, 
mixed  oats  and  barley,  and  similar  mixtures,  materials  are  often 


112      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


added  which  are  inferior.  These  inferior  materials  are  called 
adulterants.  As  a  general  rule  adulterants  are  added  to  feeds 
that  command  high  prices  and  so  are  disposed  of  for  more  than 
they  would  bring  if  sold  unmixed. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FEED  ADULTERANTS 


Name  of  adulterant 

Composition  in  per  cent. 

Protein 

Fat 
(ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen 
free  ex- 
tract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

(ground  corn  cobs  

2.40 
9.00 
3-30 
5.63 
12.50 

6.10 
3.50 
4-54 
15.85 
3-60 
13-30 

0.50 
5.80 
1.  00 

3.58 

3.00 

2.06 

0.49 
0.78 

11-57 
0.90 
7.00 

54.90 
62.20 
52.10 

65.10 
32.91 
26.86 
14.36 

41.91 
38.21 

53-9° 

30.10 
12.70 
29.70 
41.86 
4.90 
45.10 
41.89 
66.12 
14.60 
45-30 
1  1.  60 

10.70 
9.00 
7-30 

1  1.  60 
1  1.  06 
8.97 
10.76 
8.18 
IO.OI 
IO.OO 

1.40 
I.30 
6.70 

2.90 

2.77 
18.29 

344 
7.89 
I.98 
4.2O 

Oat  hulls  

Flax  bran1  

^f  heat  screenings  

Cotton  seed  hulls  

Rice  hulls  

Peanut  hulls  

Flax  feed  (screenings)  .... 
Buckwheat  hulls  «  •     « 

Weed  seeds2  

These  materials  are  generally  ground  very  fine  so  that  they 
are  not  easily  detected  by  a  physical  examination.  Sweepings, 
elevator  dust,  brushings,  grain  screenings  and  other  wastes  are 
used  to  some  extent  in  our  feeds,  but  there  is  such  variation  in 
the  composition  of  these  materials  that  the  analyses  are  not  given 
in  the  table.  Corn  pith,  corn  stalks,  straws,  corn  husks,  etc., 
are  sometimes  used.  Weed  seeds  are  objectionable  because  they 
sometimes  injure  the  palatability  of  the  feed  to  which  they  are 
added,  and  they  are  a  source  of  disseminating  objectionable 
weeds  when  they  are  added  to  a  feed  unground.  Unground 
weed  seeds  often  pass  through  the  animal  undigested.  Some 
states  do  not  permit  the  use  of  adulterants  as  previously  ex- 
plained. 

Suggestion:  Require  the  students  to  secure  a  copy  of  the 
State  Feed  Stuff  Law  and  if  your  state  has  no  law  have  them 
obtain  the  law  from  some  other  state.  The  students  should  read 
it  thoroughly  and  write  a  criticism  of  it. 

1  Bui.  141,  Kentucky  Kxp.  Station. 

2  Bu1.  131,  Indiana  Exp.  Station. 


SECTION  XX. 


A  FEW  REMARKS  ABOUT  FEED  STUFFS 

Valuation  of  Feed  Stuffs. — It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  money 
values  of  feed  stuffs  as  we  can  with  fertilizers.  The  constituents 
in  mixed  fertilizers,  namely,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash may  be  purchased  singly,  but  when  we  purchase  feed  stuffs 
we  get  protein,  fats  and  carbohydrates  and  cannot  purchase  any 
one  of  these  nutrients  alone,  except  occasionally  carbohydrates 
from  cane  molasses.  There  are  products  on  the  market  as 
sugar,  starch,  oils,  protein  substances,  etc.,  which  may  contain 
single  nutrients  but  these  products  are  too  expensive  to  feed  live 
stock. 

There  have  been  many  attempts  made  to  secure  a  money 
valuation  for  protein,  fats  and  carbohydrates  but  so  far  all  have 
been  unsuccessful.  Should  corn  be  taken  as  a  basis  and  values 
established,  these  values  when  applied  to  the  nutrients  in  cotton 
seed  meal  are  all  out  of  proportion  to  the  selling  price  of  this 
feed.  The  same  principle  applies  with  the  nutrients  of  other 
feeds.  If  we  calculate  on  the  digestible  nutrients  or  dry  matter 
in  feeds,  the  results  secured  have  no  comparative  relation.  The 
heat  values  of  feed  stuffs  may  be  determined  but  a  money  value 
cannot  be  placed  on  the  heats  of  combustion,  because  the  nutri- 
ents act  in  another  capacity  as  repair  material,  which  value  can- 
not be  ascertained  in  this  way. 

Rebates  and  Comparative  Unit  Values. — In  some  sections  of  the 
country  the  purchaser  buys  feed  stuffs  on  the  chemical  analyses 
and  when  they  fail  to  reach  the  guarantee,  rebates  are  demanded 
to  make  up  for  the  deficiencies.  In  Louisiana  the  writer  re- 
ceived so  many  communications  requesting  the  settlement  of  re- 
bates on  feeds  failing  to  reach  their  guarantees,  that  the  follow- 
ing method  was  worked  out  and  is  used  in  the  calculation  of  re- 
bates. 

The  nutrients  considered  are  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates 
(nitrogen  free  extract).  To  secure  a  basis  of  comparison  of 
values,  according  to  composition,  one  pound  of  protein  is  con- 
sidered of  the  same  value  as  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  carbo- 


114      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

hydrates,  and  one  pound  of  fat  is  considered  to  be  worth  as  much 
as  two  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  carbohydrates.  Therefore,  to 
secure  the  total  number  of  units  on  which  the  value  is  based, 
we  multiply  the  protein  content  by  2.50  and  the  fat  content  by 
2.25  and  add  these  products  to  the  carbohydrate  content. 

Example. — Let  us  suppose  a  commercial  feed  is  sold  for  $32 
per  ton  and  guaranteed  to  contain  14  per  cent,  of  protein,  4  per 
cent,  of  fat  and  60  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates.  By  analysis  we  find 
12.30  per  cent,  of  protein,  3.80  per  cent,  of  fat  and  62  per  cent, 
of  carbohydrates.  Then  the  percentages  of  protein,  fat  and 
carbohydrates  as  guaranteed,  multiplied  by  their  respective  unit 
values  will  give  the  unit  values  guaranteed  of  each  of  these 
nutrients.  The  addition  of  these  will  give  us  the  total  unit  value 
guaranteed.  In  other  words,  14  (the  per  cent,  of  protein  guar- 
anteed) multiplied  by  2.50  (the  unit  value  for  protein)  gives  us 
35.00  (or  the  unit  value  of  protein  guaranteed). 

4  (the  per  cent,  of  fat  guaranteed)  multiplied  by  2.25  (the  unit 
value  of  fat)  gives  us  9.00  (or  the  unit  value  of  fat  guaranteed). 

60  (the  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates  guaranteed)  multiplied  by 
i.oo  (the  unit  value  of  carbohydrates)  gives  us  60.00  (or  the 
unit  value  of  carbohydrates  guaranteed). 

That  is  : 

14  X  2.50  =  35.00 

4  X  2.25  ===    9.00 

60  X  i -°o  =  60.00 

Total  unit  value  guaranteed —  104.00 

In  a  similar  manner  we  arrive  at  the  total  units  found. 
Example : 

12.30  x  2.50  ==  30.75 

3.80X2.25=  8.55 

62.00  X  LOO  =  62.00 

Total  unit  value  found =  101 .30 

That  is,  the  purchaser  was  guaranteed  104  units  for  $32  a  ton, 
but  he  received  only  101.30  units. 

Then  104  (the  unit  value  guaranteed)   is  to   101.30   (the  unit 


A    FEW    REMARKS    ABOUT    FEED    STUFFS  115 

value  found)  as  32  (the  contract  price  per  ton)  is  to  (the  actual 
price  to  be  paid  per  ton). 
In  other  words : 

104   :  101.30  =  32   :  X         104  X  =  3241.60 
X  =  31.17,  or  the  actual  price  that  should  be  paid  per  ton. 
$32  —  $31.17  =  $0.83,  the  rebate  per  ton. 

Impossible  to  Consider  Digestibility. — It  is  impossible  to  con- 
sider the  digestibilities  of  the  nutrients  in  the  several  mixed 
feeds,  because  of  the  enormous  expenditure  of  money  and  work 
necessary  to  determine  these  percentages.  Again  the  primary 
products  that  go  to  make  up  these  feeds  are  often  changing.  For 
example,  a  mixed  feed  will  be  inspected  that  is  made  up  of  corn, 
rice  bran,  rice  polish,  cotton  seed  meal,  and  cane  molasses.  In 
a  month  from  the  above  inspection,  the  same  company  will  change 
the  ingredients  of  this  same  brand  of  feed,  so  that  it  consists  of 
corn,  wheat  bran,  alfalfa  and  cane  molasses,  and  the  guarantee 
and  the  name  of  the  brand  will  remain  unchanged.  Under  such 
conditions  it  is  impossible  to  consider  anything  except  the  chemi- 
cal analysis.  The  market  prices,  demand,  ease  of  obtaining, 
location,  etc.  of  the  available  primary  products  seem  to  determine 
the  ingredients  that  are  used  in  mixed  feeds. 

No  Other  Feed  Should  be  Considered  in  Settlement. — Some 
agents  have  tried  to  settle  rebates  by  figuring  a  mixed  feed  as 
valuable  as  some  other  feed  as  oats  for  example.  Oats  may  be 
selling  for  $36  per  ton  and  his  feed  for  $32  per  ton,  and  yet  the 
per  cent,  of  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  may  be  about  the  same 
in  the  two  feeds.  When  a  feed  is  sold  to  contain  a  given  per 
cent,  of  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  for  a  fixed  price,  the  re- 
bate should  be  calculated  on  this  basis  and  no  other  feed  should 
be  considered  in  the  settlement. 

Values  Only  Approximate. — The  j  student  should  understand 
that  the  unit  values  for  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  as  given 
are  only  approximate,  but  are  used  by  the  trade  in  certain  sec- 
tions, in  settling  rebates,  and  seem  to  give  general  satisfaction. 

Overages  and  Deficiencies. — The  student  may  wish  to  know 
why  allowance  is  made  for  overage  in  certain  nutrients  and 


Il6      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

deficiencies  in  others.  It  may  be  said  that  such  is  permissible 
within  reasonable  limits.  The  manufacturers  of  feeds  intend  to 
guarantee  their  products  as  true  to  the  actual  composition  as 
possible.  Most  of  the  manufacturers  try  to  give  a  little  more 
nutrients  than  guaranteed,  so  that  the  feed  will  meet  the  guarantee 
under  reasonable  conditions.  Sometimes  a  feed  will  run  above 
the  guarantee  in  one  nutrient  and  low  in  the  other  two,  or  it  may 
run  above  in  two  nutrients  and  low  in  one;  but  it  hardly  ever 
falls  below  the  guarantee  in  all  three  nutrients.  If  the  chemical 
analysis  approximates  the  guarantee,  the  system  as  laid  down 
for  figuring  rebates  is  permissible.  The  composition  of  the  feed 
stuffs  found  on  the  American  market  will  usually  come  within 
reasonable  limits  of  their  guarantees. 

How  to  Buy  a  Feed. — You  have  learned  that  many  of  our 
feeds  vary  considerably  in  composition  and  therefore  do  not  buy 
cotton  seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  wheat  bran,  etc.  just  because  they 
are  so  named.  In  purchasing  feed  stuffs  consult  the  standards  as 
given  for  the  several  feeds  in  the  previous  sections,  and  send  for 
a  bulletin  from  your  State  Experiment  Station  or  from  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  which  may  contain  analyses  of  the  prod- 
ucts you  intend  to  buy.  After  familiarizing  yourself  witi"  what 
the  feed  should  contain,  ask  your  feed  dealer  for  the  guarantee, 
».  e.  the  chemical  analysis  and  weight  of  the  package.  If  the 
feed  or  feeds  you  want  to  purchase  are  below  the  standards  as 
set  forth  in  your  state  bulletin  or  in  the  table  of  standards  in  this 
book,  do  not  purchase.  There  are  many  dealers  and  merchants 
who  purchase  the  cheapest  feeds  possible,  regardless  of  their 
value,  and  sell  these  inferior  feeds  to  their  customers  for  near- 
ly as  high  a  price  as  high  class  feeds  bring.  They  do  this  to 
make  greater  profits. 

Before  purchasing  any  feed  the  purchaser  should  know  the 
kind  of  feed  that  is  needed  for  his  economical  use.  If  con- 
siderable molasses,  corn,  roughage  (native  hay,  corn  stover,  etc.) 
are  on  hand,  a  feed  rich  in  protein  should  be  secured.  For  ex- 
ample, if  plenty  of  carbohydrate  feeds  are  on  hand,  as  corn  and 
grass  hay,  it  would  be  a  waste  of  money  to  purchase  a  feed  rich 
in  carbohydrates  and  in  all  probability  the  results  of  feeding  such 


A    FEW    REMARKS    ABOUT    FEED    STUFFS 


combinations  would  be  unsatisfactory.  The  selling  price  and  the 
name  of  a  feed  do  not  indicate  its  suitability  for  the  needs  of  the 
purchaser.  Often  the  cheapest  feeds  are  the  most  expensive  for 
the  nutrients  received  and  sometimes  the  reverse  is  true. 

Classes  of  Feeds. — The  table  following  shows  the  principal 
feeds  found  on  the  American  market  arranged  in  classes  accord- 
ing to  their  protein  content. 


Class  I 


Class  II 


Class  III 


Class  IV 


Class  V 


Cotton-seed  meal 
Linseed  meal 
Gluten  meal 
Dried  distillers'  grains 

Gluten  feed 
Malt  sprouts 
Cotton-seed  feed 
Dried  brewers'  grains 
Germ  oil  meal 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) 

Wheat  mixed  feed  (bran  and  shorts) 

Oat  middlings 

Wheat  bran 

Flax  feed 

Molasses  dry  dairy  feed 

Rye  feed 

Feed  mixture  (dairy) 

Alfalfa  meal  (whole  plant) 

Wheat  admixture 

R  ice  bran 

Clover  meal  (whole  plant) 

Fortified  oat  feed 

Rice  polish 

Molasses  dry  horse  feed 

Feed  mixture  (horse  and  mule) 

Ground  oats 

Ground  wheat 

Barley  meal 

Rye  meal 

Hominy  feed 

Mixed  oats  and  barley 

Provender 

Feed  meal 
Corn  bran 
Corn  meal 
Corn  chops 
Corn  and  oat  feed 
Oat  feed 
Dried  beet  pulp 
Beet  molasses 


30-50  per  cent. 

protein 
23-49  per  cent. 

carbohydrates 

20-30  per  cent. 

protein 
35-55  per  cent. 

carbohydrates 


14-20  per  cent. 

protein 
35-65  per  cent. 

carbohydrates 


10-14  per  cent. 
!      protein 

35-65  per  cent, 
carbohydrates 


8-10  per  cent, 
protein 

50-75  per  cent, 
carbohydrates 


Il8      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

The  hays  from  grasses,  dry  fodders,  straws,  and  cane  molasses 
would  probably  be  considered  as  carbohydrate  feeds  although  it 
must  be  remembered  that  they  do  not  contain  as  much  protein 
as  the  feeds  included  in  Class  V. 

This  table  may  be  found  useful  in  the  selection  of  feeds. 
Classes  I  and  II  are  especially  rich  in  protein  and  may  be  classed 
as  protein  feeds.  Classes  III  and  IV  may  be  termed  protein  and 
carbohydrate  feeds.  Class  V  includes  the  carbohydrate  feeds. 

Conversion  Factors. — Some  products  are  used  for  fertilizer 
and  feed,  and  when  sold  may  be  guaranteed  to  contain  only 
nitrogen  or  ammonia.  The  following  factors  will  be  useful  in 
obtaining  equivalents  of  nitrogen,  ammonia  and  protein: 

One  per  cent,  nitrogen  =  1.2154  per  cent,  ammonia  =  6.25  per  cent, 
protein. 

One  per  cent,  ammonia  =  .823  per  cent,  nitrogen  —  5.14  per  cent, 
protein. 

One  per  cent,  protein  =  .16  per  cent,  nitrogen  =  .1945  per  cent,  ammonia. 
Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

5.44  nitrogen  =  6.61  ammonia  =  34  protein 
5.60  6.81  35 

5.76  7.00  36 

5-91  7.19  37 

6.08  7.40  38 

6.24  7-59  39 

6.40  7.78  40 

6.56  7-98  41 

6.72  8.17  42 

EXAMPLE.— Cotton-seed  meal,  carrying  6.58  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  is 
equivalent  to  cotton-seed  meal  containing  6.58  X  1-2154  or  8.00  per  cent, 
ammonia  and  6.58  X  6.25  or  41.12  per  cent,  protein.  A  feed  containing  15 
per  cent,  protein  is  equivalent  to  a  feed  containing  15  X  -1945  or  2.92  per 
cent,  ammonia  and  15  X  >1^  °r  2-4°  Per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Condimental  Feeds. — There  are  a  great  many  of  these  feeds 
sold  in  this  country.  They  are  made  up  of  mixtures  of  sulphur, 
salt,  saltpeter,  Epsom  salts,  Glauber's  salts,  sodium  bicarbonate, 
fenugreek  seeds,  fennel  seeds,  ginger,  turmeric,  gentian  pow-ler, 
charcoal,  red  and  black  peppers,  ground  bone,  Venetian  red,  anise, 
oyster  shells  and  similar  products,  generally  with  some  feed  as 
a  basis,  in  varying  proportions.  These  feeds  generally  carry 


A    FEW    REMARKS    ABOUT    FEED    STUFFS 

attractive  names  and  the  manufacturers  make  great  claims  re- 
garding their  curative  properties. 

The  following  is  taken  from  Bui.  106,  Mass.  Exp.  Station. 

"Cost  and  Selling  Price  Compared. — None  of  the  mineral  drugs 
used  in  these  feeds  except  nitre,  cost  much  over  a  cent  a  pound, 
and  the  vegetable  drugs  vary  in  price  from  3  to  12  cents  a  pound. 
The  cost  of  condimental  feeds  rarely  exceeds  2  to  3  cents  a  pound. 
The  retail  prices  vary  from  6  to  25  cents  a  pound,  depending  on 
the  \brand  and  quantity  purchased.  Condition  powders  are 
much  higher  priced,  from  30  cents  to  $i  a  pound. 

Value. — "The  food  value  of  these  feeds  has  been  shown  by 
experiments  to  be  no  greater  than  that  of  ordinary  grains  of 
which  they  are  largely  composed.  Their  medicinal  value  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  aromatic  seeds  and  roots  used  as  a  tonic 
for  the  stomach,  on  charcoal  as  an  absorbent,  and  on  the  purga- 
tive effect  of  the  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts.  The  quantity  re- 
commended to  be  fed  daily  is  usually  so  small  (one  ounce  or  less) 
that  very  little  effect  can  be  expected  unless  the  material  is  fed 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  While  it  is  probably  true  that 
some  of  these  stock  foods  may  prove  beneficial  under  certain  con- 
ditions, it  is  also  true  that  most  of  them  are  heterogeneous  mix- 
tures and  evidently  put  together  by  parties  quite  ignorant  of  the 
principles  of  animal  physiology,  pathology  and  veterinary  medi- 
cine. 

"Dr.  Paige,  very  pointedly  expresses  the  most  advanced  views 
of  the  veterinary  profession  when  he  says,  animals  in  a  state  of 
health  do  not  need  condition  powders  or  tonic  foods.  There  is  in 
the  body  of  a  healthy  animal  a  condition  of  equilibrium  of  all 
body  functions.  The  processes  of  digestion  and  assimilation  are 
at  their  best.  All  that  is  required  to  maintain  this  condition  of 
balance,  is  that  the  animal  be  kept  under  sanitary  conditions  and 
receive  a  sufficient  supply  of  healthful  nutritive  food  and  pure 
water.  While  tonics  may  improve  the  appetite  so  that  the  animal 
will  temporarily  consume  and  digest  more  food,  should  this  in- 
creased quantity  of  nutrients  consumed  not  be  appropriated  by 
the  tissues  of  the  body,  harm  may  result  from  thus  over-loading 


I2O      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

the  lymphatic  system,  or  from  an  increased  action  of  the  excret- 
ing organs." 

Treatment. — Bartlett  of  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  rec- 
ommends the  following  when  a  tonic  is  required.  "Pulverized 
gentian,  one  pound;  pulverized  ginger,  l/±  pound;  pulverized 
saltpeter,  J4  pound;  pulverized  iron  sulphate,  J/£  pound.  Mix 
and  give  one  tablespoonful  in  the  feed  once  a  day  for  ten  days, 
omit  for  three  days,  then  give  ten  days  more.  The  cost  of  this 
tonic  is  20  cents  a  pound." 

If  animals  are  sick  it  is  cheaper  to  consult  a  veterinarian  than 
to  take  any  chances  with  tonics. 

Experiments  conducted  at  other  Experiment  Stations  on  con- 
dimental  feeds  and  condition  powders  have  demonstrated  that 
the  economical  feeder  cannot  afford  to  purchase  them. 

Suggestion :  Take  the  class  to  a  feed  store  or  feed  stores,  and 
have  the  students  examine  the  commercial  feeds  on  sale.  Re- 
quire them  to  copy  the  guarantees,  selling  prices,  names  of  the 
feeds  and  addresses  of  the  manufacturers  or  jobbers.  Have  them 
compare  the  data  obtained  with  the  standards  as  set  forth  in  the 
state  bulletin  or  in  this  book.  Let  them  figure  the  cost  of  the 
feeds  per  ton  and  classify  them.  Take  the  class  around  to  the 
feed  and  drug  stores  and  see  what  condimental  feeds  are  for 
sale.  Make  a  list  of  them  and  ascertain  their  prices.  Have 
them  figure  the  ton  prices  of  these  feeds. 

Require  the  students  to  make  a  physical  examination  of  all  the 
feeds  stating  their  ingredients. 


SECTION  XXI. 


COMPOSITION  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  OF  FEED  STUFFS 
AND   THE   NUTRITIVE   RATIO. 

Composition  of  Feeds. — We  have  already  stated  the  meaning 
and  functions  of  the  nutritive  elements  contained  in  plants  and 
animals.  The  next  thing  is  to  become  more  familiar  with  the 
composition  and  digestibility  of  feeds.  The  chemist  has  already 
worked  out  these  for  us  and  he  expresses  the  composition  as 
follows : 

COMPOSITION  OF  CORN  (GRAIN)  IN  PER  CENT. 


Protein 

Fat  (ether 
extract) 

Nitrogen  free 
extract 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

10.3 

5-0 

70.4 

2.2 

10.6 

1-5 

The  above  analysis  is  very  simply  translated.  It  means  that 
in  every  100  pounds  of  corn  grain,  there  are  10.3  Ibs.  of  protein, 
5  Ibs.  of  fat,  70.4  Ibs.  of  nitrogen  free  extract,  2.2  Ibs.  of  fiber, 
10.6  Ibs.  of  water  and  1.5  Ibs.  of  ash.  Or  there  are  10.6  Ibs.  of 
water  and  89.4  Ibs.  of  dry  matter. 

Digestibility  of  Feeds. — Knowing  the  composition  of  feeds,  it 
is  now  necessary  to  become  acquainted  with  the  actual  amounts 
of  the  nutrients  (protein,  fat,  nitrogen  free  extract  and  fiber), 
that  the  animal  can  assimilate.  The  digestibility  of  any  food  is 
determined  by  analyzing  and  finding  its  chemical  composition, 
namely  the  per  cent,  of  protein,  ether  extract,  nitrogen  free  ex- 
tract, fiber,  water  and  ash,  and  feeding  weighed  portions  of  this 
food  to  animals  for  a  given  period  and  at  regular  intervals.  The 
feces  or  manure  is  collected,  weighed  and  analyzed.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  dry  matter  fed  and  the  dry  matter  cast  off  as 
manure,  is  taken  as  digestible.  This  procedure  seems  very  simple 
but  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  work,  and  the  results  received  are 
not  always  satisfactorily  accurate. 

Digestibility  not  Always  Accurate. — The  true  digestibility  of 
the  protein  and  fats  is  the  most  difficult  to  ascertain.  We  know 
9 


122      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

that  nitrogenous  compounds  present  in  wastes  that  are  passed 
off  in  the  processes  of  digestion,  such  as  the  wastes  from  mucus, 
bile,  digestive  juices,  etc.,  have  no  connection  with  the  protein  of 
the  food  in  the  experiment.  It  seems  that  the  smaller  the  per 
cent,  of  protein  in  the  food,  as  in  hay  or  straw  for  example,  the 
greater  are  the  amounts  of  these  waste  products  in  the  manure. 
The  writer  conducted  some  digestion  experiments  on  Bermuda 
and  lespedeza  (Japan  clover)  hays  of  low  quality,  and  found  in 
some  cases  when  other  feeds  as  cotton-seed  meal,  corn  chops  and 
molasses  were  fed  with  these  hays,  a  negative  digestibility  for  the 
protein  of  these  hays.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  some  of 
the  protein  in  these  hays  was  digested.  The  digestibility  of  fat 
is  difficult  to  arrive  at  because  the  wastes  from  the  bile,  which  are 
present  in  the  feces,  are  soluble  in  ether,  which  extracts  matter 
that  is  calculated  as  fat.  The  digestibility  of  the  same  kind  of 
feed  is  perhaps  influenced  by  several  factors  such  as  season, 
climate,  fertilizer,  curing,  handling,  etc.,  so  that  the  digestibility 
of  a  feed  may  vary  with  these  conditions. 

From  the  foregoing  we  can  readily  understand  that  the  di- 
gestibilities as  given  in  Table  I  are  perhaps  not  always  accurate, 
yet  they  serve  in  giving  us  an  approximate  value  of  feed  stuffs. 

The  Per  Cent.  Digestible  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  coefficient 
of  digestibility.     In  order  to   acquaint  the   student   with   a   full 
understanding  of  digestibility  let  us  take  the  digestibility  of  corn 
for  example. 
COEFFICIENT  OF  DIGESTIBILITY  OR  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  CORN  IN  PER  CENT. 


Protein 

Ether  extract 
(fat) 

Nitrogen  free 
extract 

Fiber 

76 

86 

93 

53 

That  is,  in  100  Ibs.  of  the  grain  of  corn,  76  per  cent,  of  the 
10.3  Ibs.  of  protein  is  digestible,  86  per  cent,  of  the  5  Ibs.  of  fat 
is  digestible,  93  per  cent,  of  the  70.4  Ibs.  of  nitrogen  free  extract 
is  digestible  and  58  per  cent,  of  the  2.2  Ibs.  of  fiber  is  digestible. 
We  can  represent  this  in  another  way  by  stating  the  total  pounds 
of  digestible  nutrients  in  100  Ibs.  of  corn  grain. 


Fig.  io.— I^espedeza  (Japan  clover). 


124      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 
TOTAI,  POUNDS  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  100  LBS.  of  CORN  GRAIN 


Protein 

Ether  extract 

(fat) 

Nitrogen  free 
extract 

Fiber 

7.8 

4-3 

65.5 

i-3 

The  digestible  fiber  is  generally  added  to  the  digestible  nitro- 
gen free  extract  and  called  digestible  carbohydrates.  In  this 
case  then  the  digestible  carbohydrates  of  corn  grain  would  be 
65.5  -{-  1.3  =  66.8  Ibs.  As  mentioned  previously  the  water  is 
not  considered  a  nutrient  as  it  can  be  supplied  so  much  cheaper 
by  itself.  The  ash  is  also  omitted  because  most  of  our  feeds 
contain  enough  of  this  substance  for  the  needs  of  the  animal. 

Necessity  of  Composition  and  Digestibility. — There  are  several 
feeds  which  have  practically  the  same  chemical  composition  but 
different  percentages  of  digestibility.  Therefore  to  ascertain  the 
real  feeding  value  of  a  feed  the  composition  and  digestibility 
should  be  known. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — The  ratio  between  the  digestible  protein 
and  the  digestible  carbohydrates  +  the  digestible  fats,  is  called 
the  nutritive  ratio.  This  ratio  is  obtained  in  the  following 
manner.  The  per  cent,  of  digestible  fat  is  multiplied  by  2.25, 
to  reduce  it  to  terms  of  carbohydrates.  It  was  previously  ex- 
plained that  the  fuel  value  of  fat  is  2.25  times  that  of  carbo- 
hydrates. This  product  is  then  added  to  the  per  cent,  of  digesti- 
ble carbohydrates  which  gives  us  the  total  carbohydrates.  This 
sum  is  divided  by  the  per  cent,  of  digestible  protein, 

(digestible  fat  X   2.2*5)  +  digestible  carbohydrates 

rvxample  :     -r-. — — rr-; -— ; '-* 

digestible  protein 

=  nutritive  ratio. 

To  explain  this  more  clearly  let  us  take  the  digestibility  of 
corn  grain,  as  just  cited  in  this  section. 

Digestible  fat  (4.3)  X  fuel  value  (2.25)  =  Carbohydrate 
equivalent  (9.675). 

Digestible  carbohydrates  (66.8)  +  9.675  —  Total  digestible 
carbohydrates  (76.475). 


COMPOSITION    AND   DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS 


125 


IO  CM  C  O  •-<  rO  O  O  IO  •-  CO  >O  ON  O  O  VO  06 


CT^OO  \O    O^  CT\  lOOO    "-•    ^f  O    O    CT^  rO  —  ' 

OOCOOOCOCCCOOO  ONCO  ON  O^CO  ON  O 


126      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


•<3-co  CN  o  M  q  co  i-^  cs 

v£>rOi-<>-<OCNdd^d>-|CNCNvdt'~«dcNI>-CSMCO« 

MM  — 1  l-l 

O  "^  CN  ^  ^  CO  ^J"  t^  CN  cO  OGO  PICO  cO  *-  t^  i-"  "-1  O  to 
CN  v^  Tg"  Q>v  £•>.  H^  CN  CN  **  CO  CN  CO  to  O  O  ^-^  CN  O  l^»  tO  O 

CN    ^  cO  »H  VO    to  O  CN    OOO    cO  l>-  lOCO    ^CO    fO  PJ  vO    C[N 

CO  lOCO"  CO  O  COCO  CO  ON  tO  CN  ^O  r~.v£>  CN  r>.  ONCO  CO*  CO*  * 
_  _  (vj  (vj  _  CNCNCN  CN  CNCNi-i 

iotoTj-«  t^pi  oco  *-ioo  "-1  o  coco  o  q  o  q  t^>  q 

t^.  ro  <-*    P»    co  O    CN    co  •>•  **    co  *T  CO*   t>«  — "    co  t--.  rO  **   •*$•    ' 

~     CO  MM 

O    O    *^    cO  *^  CO    cO  0s*  C^  co  CN    O  CO    CN    CN    T^-  QN  10  t--*  to  ,_ 

co'vd'^'CNt^.coddcKcot->'CNco^i-t^MCOc^dcfN'       v 

i-i    co        i-i  —  •* 

iO  i/S  ^f  cO^O*    O    cOCN^O    cOcO^j-'^-O    ^T  toCO  CO    t^»  O         O 
IO  t^-\O  VO    Tf  IO  «OVO  vOlOr^cOcO'^'iOiO          W 

>> 

C^  tOCO  t-^^O  CT>  ON  O  *"*  CO  CN  >-N  QQ  r^-vO  O  CTN  CN  CN  00  *•* 
Tt  O  O  ^  CN  CT\  -4  OO  M  0^0  >-'  ON  O  VO  Cf>  CN  rO  co  "-'  CT\ 
P4"CNCOCNMi-iH-(t-iP4CNcO  1-1  CN  COcOCNi-i 

\£>    M    P)    t^  CN    »OVO    O    cO  O  t^CO    to  lOCO    IO  t^CO 

•^•cOcO'-<T^''^'dcNi-io*-|CNCN 

OOCOOCNt^PlO^Pl  toCC  wQcocOPIt-iPtOOO 
CO  **  -^J-CO'  d\  <jv  CN  CN  CO'  CO  CO'  to  >-<'  ^  -'  ON  CTN  O  O  "^  O 

o 

q  q  CN  q  co  coco  q  cr\co  to  CN  o  q  r^  r^oo  oco  q 
pi  c^  10  PI  d  d  t-~>cd  *~  —  •-•  ^fcd  oco'  o  d  o  ovd 

OCO  CO    O  O  OCO  OO    O  O  O  OC/D  CC  CC    O  OCO  GO  CO 

I 

• 
XJ 

OJ 

u 
o 

«d 

o 

Q 

•g 

ed 

CD     ?j       *        '        * 

p 

fl 

LJ    -      •  •          T3 

« 

O  .-,  .     .  ^       o 

o 
o 

"o 

I 

8^ 


COMPOSITION    AND   DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS 


127 


iO  ON  O  VO  iO  »>•  O  •  »O  iO  -^f  M  ci  M  TJ-  ff)  O"N 


<N    VO  O  C  t>.  O  IO  M' 


Ht  CO  u-3  ON  O  CS  C  O  «O  M  r  CN  VO  fO  i-* 


IO  IO  tOvO  rO  Tf  <N  i- 


ON  t^»  to  «O  ON  to  ONVO 


t.  O  iO  M  CO  cO  M  co  >O  T-  N  P4 


TJ-   to  t>.  o\  Tt   «>•    co 


i-  v  t>.  r.  O  O  O  O  O  c  o  O>o  M  >-  M  o\  o  e  o 


CO  ^CO  ON  ONCO  CO  ON  ONCO  CO  CO  O 


SS&S8  gg 


128      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


rj-  CM  CO         VD    rO  t>» 


VOWMMMQOOO 


(\)   o.  <~i    ON  COCO  CO    M          M    ^-  fO  lO  rOOO    CO         cOVO 


v£5   M   fO  O   t>.  CT\  O         t>.  Cl   O 


OO    ON  co  -      *-i    O  VO    u     ON       VO   rj-  CN    O    cO  iO  lO       CO  00  CO 


f»CQ   cOCO  -      ON  co  CVD         (N        GO   O  vO   ro  CS        CO   co  <N 


VO    M   r-  10  vri  10  CO  <N 


»-  M  e  c  M  M      co      *- 


COMPOSITION    AND   DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS 


129 


M  c 


r>.  cooo  co     «  toco  co  io\    «s  oo  co  •<*  «N  \  >-<  >~ 


«  i-  v  •-<  oo  >-  i-     ON  >-« 


M  p  c*  i-,  M   p  O  p  p  «  p  w  p 


!-,'  M  M  M   d  d  M  d  d   d  d  «'  d  d  d  d  d  d 


cc  i  vc  i  CTN  fo  p<       c>  10  M  so  vo  «o  PI  •-«  p<  \o  N          oo 


ON  P<   iO  ON        O    O  ^O    ro        10  PI    P<    CO  u     cO  t.00 


10  *  &          >-       PJ 


O    IO  (^  O          i-<    O    P    >O  co  O    O    O 

oo  vo  vc  co  oo  t^co  vo  t^.  t~.co  co  co 


co  u  cr\  "-i  CTN     co  o  o  o 


—  t-v    r-         -•        -  0        i-  »o  r>.  o  d 

O  t^OO    C^fO          CNP<COCOCNPIPICNCOP)P4P4P<PI 


1  33*cgtill£slf  ilSSSlllS 


I3O      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


^f  ^"^O    CN    fO        C^  rOVO    O  CO    O    O>  O^CO    ON  fO  CN   rj-  rf  O\ 

6  6  6  6  6      6  6  6  >-*  d  CN  d  d  d  d  ~  «-*  M  M  d 

Tt  CN   cr\  d  O  O>co  CN  to  M  t^°.  cfv  "3-cd  CN  >-*  d  ro  CN  ro 

O  VO    CN    rOvO  VO    IO  <N    t->.  CN  GO    "^  O    CN    <N    tO  ON  O    CTN  l~^ 

CN    O    HH    CN    CN*  Tt"  CN    CN    CO  «O  ^  CN    CO  vrivO*    ^  IO  IO  T}-  fO 

VO    ^O  CN    10  10  CN    Q\VO    ^O  ^^    O^*  O  VO   t*>»  O    *— (  VO    rOVO   t^* 

O     O    M    O     O  CN     O    M    CN    CN    CO  CN    M    M    CN*    CN*    CN    <S*    CN    CN 

VO    *^  CO    *O  '^  ^^  CO  O^  r^»  ^O  O  VO    CN    ^"CO    l^^vO    CN    ^  ^ 

•-*  VO*    i-1  VO  ^O*  CN     CN    CN*    r"-CO*    fOVO*    CN  CO*    O    t^-  t~*-  O^  CN     O 

1-1  1-1  CNrOrOCSCNCNCNrOCNfOCNCNCNrOrO 

CO  vO   CN   ^~  ^^  to  ^   O  CO    ^CO    O^  fO  ^i~vO    O   *O  O    C   fO 

vo'  ^"  d  co  co'  co*  CN*  i-.'  CN 

CN    M    cOfOrO  O   tovO   t^t~>«t>.t>»iOCO    O^t^O    O^CO"  VO 

CO    1-1    M  CO  VO  fOCO    ro  r<%  M    ro  t-«.  M    tf>  CN    O    IO  CN    O   M 

vorj-vooq  voqfoocNCNvoqqiot^cTNq  c^co_ 

Ttvq  TJ-  q  q  -^  q  t~>.  q  co  co  TJ-  q  q  10  ro  -<  q  ^  CN 

rO  O  CO    O    O  <>vo'    C^vO*    ^CO  CO*  VO  vo'    ON  CN    t>.  10  O    fO 

CNCNfOCNCN  COCOCOCOCO    f^CO  CO  CO  CO    OxCO  CO    O>  ON 

1 3  •**»  I          )      ^     '      c«  I      »-  > 

C  -    £/}   *" '  -        — *         ^         c/2     .         hr  *^ 


O 


COMPOSITION    AND    DIGESTIBLE)    NUTRIENTS 


vo  co  q  "t  Tf 
c>  o  •-'  o"  o 


iovo  cs  cs  to  to  r^ 
d  o  o"  o  o  o  o" 


S9JBJP 


o  vo  a\>-  ro  o 


cs  vo  oo  vq  co 

•-'  oo'  cs"  6  vo* 


vq  I-H  co  t>.  M  --I  CO 
CS*  co  lOOO  ON  iO  rf 


00  ON  <0  T|-  <000  CO 
CS  cO  CS*  co 


t>.  cs  »>-vq  rj- 
O  M  cs  o"  6 


ON  »>.  rOCO  Tf  ON  ON 
co  cs'  cs'  M  cs'  M  cs' 


ON  *— '  M  ON  ON  IO  ^ 

i-i  co  cs'  —  i-i  cs'  co 


10  f>  O  cs  co 

M  M  CI  M  M* 


O  O>  TT  rj-  t>.vq  M 

-'  6  6  o  o  o'  M 


\O  to  ^O  r^  ON  O  O 
CO  CS  oi  vo'  O  ON  6 


O  O  vO  ON  M 
vo  r-^oo'  od  od 


Tf  TtOO  00  CS  CO  1-1 
t>.  t^.  fO  TJ-  io  O^OO* 


co  q  oq  w  -t-  Tj-  io 
-'  TJ-  t^-co' 


»O  O    ON  O 


CO   ONCO  ^  « 

^f  CO  CS    CS     CO  Cs'    ^ 


CS  00    rj- 

io  vd  co 


00    «  CO    CS    CS 


^  o  <*j  t>.  t^.  q  M 

cs'  cs  i-i  M  M  co  cs' 


ONVO   O   O   O   cs   co 
CO  vo'  vo'  rf  -^-  co  6 


cs  cs  q  M  vq 

rf  ON  CN    t>«  ON 


oo  oo  q  vq  ON  q  oo 
^-  TT  r-^  co  O  O  O 
t^  t^co  oo  co  i^  r^ 


-;  Tt  q  q  q  oo  «^ 

M  co  ^"  vO  vO  VO  ON 
ONOO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 


CO>  CO  0  ON  Tt 
IO  O  CO  CS*  O 
00  ONOO  ON  ON 


cs  cs  q  rt  i-.  q  cs 

00  io  rovd   ON  O   ON 
cs   cs   i-i   i-i   M   co  cs 


w^-^  rt  o*C  v  v 

x«uuo*i& 


132      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


sa^BJp 


upload 


upcsco      crMO(NfNooqt^.ON»O'^-^tio     coo 

O      0*0  0*     M     M     M     M      CO   M      M      M      M     M     M  O      M 


cOO 


CS    ONGO         VO    ^f  cO  lO^O    t^CO   t>>  O>  ON  cO  »O         co  cO 
CO  «    C4  O*  CO'    O>  O    t-^VO  VO    lO  O    CN  CO     —  TJ-  fN 


9  "^"  ^t     °i  ^  "P20.  ^  ^ 

M*  6   O         w  oi  oi 


O  VO    lO  W    iOv£5  CO    lO  cO  -<t  t^ 
10  <O  M    tAv£)    CO  TJ-  rf  M'   IOVO 


o"  vd 


vq  rf  i-i       rt  co  IOVD 
ci  M  w"        t>«od  co  06 


"-    O    O 


cOvO  co  w  fO  co  O 


ON  O  O   VD  cO  M  ^"  t^*  ^^  t^OO  t"^  t^  O  cO   ^"  ON 

<N  i-i  M    ON  OCO  ONCO  ONQO  t^CO  00  CO  ON   CO  CO 


n  • 

o  '  •  • 

u  .  :  : 


;j.s 


COMPOSITION    AND   DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS 


133 


ON  IO  »>•  O   r^-  t-«.  ONVO    MrO         «    PI    M    1-1    1-1    w    w    rrj  W    N 

M  o'd'-Jddd^d  ~   6666666066 


C        vD   O 


OO«»-ii-.voa\aNOO 


_,.-.  w  d  o  M  •  d  «N      d  d  d  d  o*  d  d  d  d  d 


asqg 


ui3^oa<i 


«   10  W    tH 


,  HH   >O     IO 

ONOO'  co  vd  d  vo"  co  "-,'  co*  o* 

»^.OO  CO  CO    ONOO    t^t^CC    ON 


lOOOOONOt^O 


'd 


. 


( 


134      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


B  «  >/7 


2  afc«<a«r0,d'3a«a(U-flS?!3_3>- 

g  iS|».|lg^SSp.§S&aJS 

u  oscsooi-i.^Csart'^^ascsrr 


TJL     >^^>rouu<-l*-iJL^S3rtJ^ri^Cli3ro>-i. 

2  <«auoQQ^pL.P^pL,Pi^^ w 02 H ? 


S 


COMPOSITION    AND    DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS  135 

Total  digestible  carbohydrates  (76.475)  -f-  digestible  protein 
(7.8)  =  9-8. 

Nutritive  ratio  in  this  case  is   i    :  9.8. 

Table  of  Composition  and  Digestible  Nutrients. — The  composi- 
tion and  digestible  nutrients  of  feed  stuffs  are  given  in  Table  I. 
The  results  in  this  table  are  the  work  of  Foreign  and  American 
investigators. 

Suggestion:  Make  the  students  determine  the  coefficients 
of  digestibility  of  several  feeds.  Assume  some  percentages  of 
digestibility  for  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  and  have  the 
students  work  out  the  nutritive  ratios.  If  a  cow  is  fed  6  Ibs.  of 
corn  and  cob  meal  a  day  what  per  cent,  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbo- 
hydrates does  it  digest? 


SECTION  XXII. 


FEEDING  STANDARDS. 

The  amount  of  digestible  protein,  digestible  fat  and  digestible 
carbohydrates  required  per  day  for  animals  of  1,000  Ibs.  live 
weight,  for  different  purposes,  is  called  the  "Feeding  Standard/' 

The  table  of  feeding  standards  is  based  on  the  work  of  foreign 
investigators  and  is  arranged  after  Armsby.  American  investi- 
gators think  that  these  standards  call  for  more  protein  than  is 
required  for  our  conditions  and  hence  a  reduction  is  sometimes 
recommended  to  secure  the  best  results.  However,  the  prices 
of  protein  and  carbohydrates,  which  will  be  taken  up  later,  have 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  make  up  of  a  ration. 

Henry  in  his  valuable  book  on  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  says: 
"Standards  are  arranged  to  meet  the  requirements  of  farm 
animals  under  normal  conditions.  The  student  should  not  accept 
the  statements  in  the  standards  as  absolute,  but  rather  as  data  of 
a  helpful  nature,  to  be  varied  in  practice  as  circumstances  suggest. 

"The  statements  in  the  column  headed  "Dry  Matter"  should 
be  regarded  as  approximate  only,  since  the  digestive  tract  of  the 
animal  readily  adapts  itself  to  variations  of  10  per  cent,  or  more 
from  the  standard  of  volume. 

"The  standards  are  for  animals  of  normal  size.  Those  of 
small  breeds  will  require  somewhat  more  nutrients,  amounting  in 
some  cases  to  0.3  of  a  pound  of  nitrogenous  and  1.5  pounds  of 
non-nitrogenous  digestible  nutrients  daily  for  1,000  pounds  of  live 
weight  of  animals. 

"Narrowing  the  nutritive  ratio  in  feeding  full  grown  animals 
is  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  depression  of  digestibility,  to 
enliven  the  temperament,  or  to  increase  the  production  of  milk 
at  the  expense  of  laying  on  fat. 

"The  different  standards  given  for  the  same  class  of  animals 
according  to  performance  illustrate  the  manner  and  direction  in 
which  desirable  changes  should  be  made. 

"In  considering  the  fattening  standards  the  student  should 
bear  in  mind  that  the  most  rapid  fattening  is  usually  the  most 


FEEDING   STANDARDS  137 

economical,  so  that  the  standard  given  may  often  be  profitably 
increased. 

"Standards  for  milch  cows  are  given  for  the  middle  of  the 
lactation  period  with  animals  yielding  milk  of  average  com- 
position. 

"The  standards  for  growing  animals  contemplate  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  exercise;  if  much  is  taken,  add  15  per  cent., —  (mostly 
non-nitrogenous  nutrients) — to  the  ration.  If  no  exercise  is  taken, 
deduct  15  per  cent,  from  the  standard." 

Explanation  of  Table  II.— The  table  on  feeding  standards  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  A  and  B.  Table  A  gives  the  amounts 
of  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  required  per  day  for 
farm  animals  under  all  conditions  of  work  and  rest.  This  table 
is  based  on  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight.  Table  B  is  similar  to  Table 
A,  except  that  the  standards  are  based  on  the  weights  of  the 
animals  as  mentioned.  To  make  this  clearer,  the  first  standard 
in  Table  A  is  for  "oxen  at  rest  in  stall."  The  standard  reads 
17.5  Ibs.  dry  matter,  0.7  Ibs  protein,  8.3  Ibs.  carbohydrates  and 
fat,  9.0  Ibs.  total,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  11.9.  This  stand- 
ard is  for  oxen,  weighing  1,000  Ibs.,  at  rest  in  the  stall.  The 
first  standard  in  table  B  is  for  growing  cattle  2-3  months  old 
weighing  150  Ibs.  The  standard  reads  3.3  Ibs.  dry  matter,  0.6 
Ibs.  protein,  2.8  Ibs.  carbohydrates  and  fat,  3.4  Ibs.  total,  with 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  I  :  4.6.  This  standard  is  figured  on  growing 
cattle  weighing  150  Ibs. 

The  digestible  carbohydrates,  fiber  and  fat  are  included  in  the 
column,  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  fat  is  reduced  to  terms  of 
carbohydrates  and  the  digestible  fiber  is  added  to  the  carbohy- 
drates because  it  is  considered  of  equal  value. 

A  study  of  the  table  reveals  a  difference  in  the  standards  for 
the  same  class  of  animal  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
animal  is  fed.  These  standards  therefore  may  be  called  feed 
requirements.  The  feed  requirements  may  be  considered  for 
maintenance,  growth,  work,  milk  production  and  fattening. 

Maintenance  Requirements. — We  learned  that  no  matter  how 
still  an  animal  might  be,  a  supply  of  food  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
animal  alive.  The  amount  of  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients 

10 


138      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  II.— FEEDING  STANDARDS 


A — Per  day  and  1,000  pounds  live  weight.1 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 

.2 
tt 

V 

> 

u 
J? 

-    91 

ii 

So 
p,  a 

u 

23» 
PO«2'O 

>>    c 

.GTS  a 

|g& 

rt 
O 

31 

*! 

Oxen  a.t  rest  in  stall  •*•    • 

17-5 

2O.O 
22.5 
24.O 
26.O 

20.  o 

21.0 
23.0 
24.0 

24-5 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25.0 
36.0 
3LO 
23-5 
25-0 
22.0 

22.0 

23-4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 

28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
22.5 
22.  0 

42.0 

34-0 
31-5 
27.0 

21.0 

0.7 

.2 

•  5 
.6 

•4 
•  5 
•  7 
2-3 
2-5 

2.2 
2-5 

3-o 

2.7 

3-o 
3-5 
5-0 
4.0 

2-7 

2.9 
2-5 

4.0 
3-2 
2.5 

2.O 

1.6 

'3-2 
2.7 

2.1 

1-7 
1.4 

7-5 
5-o 
4-3 
3-4 
2-5 

8-3 
10.8 

12.0 
12.0 

14-3 
10.4 

ii.  8 
14-3 
13-4 
14.9 
16.1 

,6.4 

16.2 

16.3 
15.8 
27.5 

24.0 

17.5 

16.2 
16.4 

18.3 
15.8 
14.9 

13.9 

12.7 

17.4 
14.7 
12.5 

11.8 
ii.  i 

30.0 
25.0 

23-7 
20.4 
16.2 

9.0 

12.0 

13-5 
13.0 
16.7 
II.9 
13-5 

16.6 

15-9 
17.1 
18.6 
19.4 
18.9 

19-3 
19-3 
32.5 
28.0 

20.2 
I9.I 
18.9 

22.3 
19.0 
17-4 
15.9 

J4-3 

20.  6 
17.4 
14.6 
13-5 
12.5 

37-5 
30.0 
28.0 
23-8 
18.7 

II.9 
9.0 

8.0 

7-5 
6.0 

6-9 
6.9 

6.2 

5-4 
6.8 

6.4 
5-5 
6.0 

5-4 
4-5 
5-5 
6.0 

6-5 
5-6 
6.6 

i    4.6 
i    4.9 
i    6.0 
i    7.0 
i    8.0 

i    5-4 
i    5-4 
i    6.0 
i    7.0 
i    8.0 

i    4.0 
i    5-0 

i    5-5 
i    6.0 
i    6.5 

Milk  cows,  Wisconsin  standard2  

Fattening  sheep   preliminary  period  

Fattening  sheep   main  period     

Fattening  swine   preliminary  period  

Fattening  swine  main  period  

Fattening  swine   finishing  period  

Age                                 Average  live  weight 
Months                                        per  head 

GROWING  CATTLE  : 

2-    *i                           i  CQ   Ibs  

1  2-  1  8                    700  Ibs  

18-24                    850  Ibs  

GROWING  SHEEP  : 
5-6                    56  Ibs  

6-8                     67  Ibs  

8-1  1                      75  Ibs  

i  c.-2o                      8^  Ibs  .  . 

GROWING  FAT  PIGS  : 

2-    7                              CQ   Ibs  .  . 

3.  cj                    100  Ibs  

6-  8                    170  Ibs  

1  The  fattening  rations  are  calculated  for  1,000  pounds  live  weight  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fattening. 

2  For  standards  for  milk  cows  see  Section  XXVII. 


FEEDING    STANDARDS 


B — Per  day  and  per  head. 


139 


GROWING  CATTLE  : 

9.    -2                                  I  CQ    1V)S  .  . 

o  6 

2   8 

A    f\ 

•?_  A                      100  Ibs   - 

•o 

7  O 

•4 

4.0 

6-12                     ^oo  Ibs  ••• 

I  2  O 

i  i 

•9 

•9 

8  H 

•9 
f.  n 

ifi  8 

••o 

O 

•4 

•7 

.0 

Q   n 

GROWING  SHEEP  : 

r.    A                                    eft    ]\)c.  . 

i  6 

•4 
o  1  8 

I2-5 

6_  3                      67  Ibs  

o  18 

•y/4 

o  08  r 

•154 

tfil 

•4 

g_j  j                      75  Ibs   

*•/ 

T   7 

•4 
6n 

1  1-  j  c                       g2  Ibs  

i  8 

°-953 

•I13 

i  ^-20                      8^  Ibs  .  • 

I    Q 

0.14 

O  12 

u-9/o 

•  f  lo 

.u 

8  o 

GROWING  FAT  SWINE  : 

J  -y 

2   I 

o  ^8 

u-yoo 

I    ^O 

•u/o 
i  88 

4/-« 

3,1 

o  ^o 

J..^)U 

2CQ 

300 

.u 

•4 

•7     Q 

O  *\A 

2  06 

.VJU 

3CQ 

. 

5c 

6-8                    1  70  Ibs 

i'6 

Oc<2 

^.yu 

•  ou 

•  J 

ft   0 

4.0 

52 

o  62 

•47 
4oc 

•UO 
467 

6  «; 

w«3 

required  to  keep  the  animal  alive,  which  is  producing  and  do- 
ing nothing,  without  a  loss  or  gain  in  weight,  is  called  the  main- 
tenance requirement.  It  is  then  the  amount  of  nutrients  re- 
quired to  maintain  the  animal  body.  The  feeding  standard  for 
"oxen  at  rest  in  stall"  is  an  example  of  a  maintenance  require- 
ment. 

Growth  Requirements. — In  the  composition  of  farm  animals 
we  found  that  the  young  animal  contains  a  larger  percentage  of 
water  than  the  mature  animal,  and  a  gain  in  weight  of  the  young 
animal  shows  less  dry  matter  and  more  water  than  with  the 
mature  animal.  We  also  learned  that  the  dry  matter  of  the 
young  animal  contains  more  protein  and  less  fat  than  that  of  the 
mature  animal.  Hence  the  requirements  for  growth  show  a 
larger  proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  than  for  the  older 
animals.  The  following  standards  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight, 
illustrate  this  point. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

1  Nutritive 
ratio 

Cattle 

27    A 

7    2 

i<;  8      1 

T  'A  Q 

Oxen 

24  o 

1.1 

Jo-° 

12  O 
12.0 

*«4»»J 

T  "7   ^ 

i'l'  J 

I4O      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Work  Requirements. — A  working  animal  requires  protein  to 
repair  the  broken  down  tissues  and  carbohydrates  and  fats  to 
produce  energy.  Therefore  the  harder  an  animal  has  to  work 
the  more  protein  and  carbohydrates  are  needed.  The  protein 


Fig.  ii. — Saddle  horse;  a  moderately  worked  animal — after  Good. 

is  usually  increased  in  greater  proportion  than  the  carbohydrates. 
The  standards  for  horses  illustrate  this : 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Horses, 
Horses, 
Horses, 

2O 
21 
23 

i-5 
1-7 
2-3 

10.4 

u.8 

M-3 

1:6.9 
1  16.9 
1:6.2 

Milk  Production  Requirements. — The  protein  requirements  for 
milk  production  are  not  entirely  satisfactory  for  all  parts  of  this 
country,  and  this  will  be  discussed  later.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
milk  contains  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  enough  protein  must 


STANDARDS 


be  supplied  to  produce  a  good  flow  of  milk  and  perform  the  nec- 
essary functions  of  the  animal  body. 

Fattening  Requirements.  —  In  the  production  of  fat,  carbohy- 
drates and  fat  of  feed  stuffs  are  mainly  used.  Hence  the  ra- 
tion for  fattening  animals  should  contain  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  non-nitrogenous  substances.  Too  much  of  an  excess  of 
carbohydrates  and  fats  is  undesirable  as  such  excess  interferes 
with  digestion.  A  small  proportion  of  the  ration  should  con- 
sist of  digestible  protein  which  aids  in  the  digestion  and  con- 
sumption of  fattening  rations.  Kellner  recommends  I  pound  of 
digestible  protein  to  8-10  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fat. 


SECTION  XXIII. 


HOW  TO  BALANCE  A  RATION  AND  TERMS  OF  A  NUTRITIVE 

RATIO.1 

Trial  Ration. — Referring  to  Table  i  (Composition  and  Digesti- 
ble Nutrients)  and  Table  II  (Feeding  Standards)  and  knowing 
the  meaning  of  the  terms  as  set  forth  in  the  preceding  pages, 
it  will  now  be  a  simple  matter  of  arithmetic  and  judgment 
to  compute  or  balance  any  ration. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  we  have  a  horse  or  a  mule 
at  home  ploughing.  Ploughing  all  day  is  hard  or  heavy  work. 
Now  if  we  turn  to  Table  II  we  find  that  the  standard  for  a 
horse  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  heavily  worked  is  as  follows: 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

23 

2-3 

14-3 

1:6.2 

This  means  that  if  our  horse  at  home  doing  heavy  work, 
weighs  1,000  Ibs.,  the  requirement  will  be  23  Ibs.  of  dry  matter. 
2.3  Ibs.  of  digestible  protein,  and  14.3  Ibs.  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates to  satisfy  its  needs  for  a  day  of  24  hours. 

Let  us  suppose  we  have  the  following  feed  stuffs  at  home: 
Cotton-seed  meal,  corn  (shelled),  wheat  bran  and  timothy  hay. 
To  figure  our  ration  let  us  try  2  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  6  Ibs.  of 
shelled  corn,  6  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  and  10  Ibs.  of  timothy  hay. 
We  must  now  find  the  total  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  diges- 
tible carbohydrates  and  fat,  in  each  of  the  above  feeds  that  make 
up  our  ration.  Referring  to  Table  I  we  find  that  100  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  contain  91.8  Ibs.  of  dry  matter,  37.2  Ibs.  of 
digestible  protein,  16.9  Ibs.  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  12.2 
Ibs.  of  digestible  fat.  Then  as  2  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  are 
included  in  our  trial  ration  we  get  the  amounts  of  digestible 
nutrients  as  stated. 

1  Adapted  from  Halligan's  Fundamentals  of  Agriculture. 


HOW    TO    BALANCE    A    RATION 


143 


2  Ibs.  X  0.918  —   1.836  Ibs.  of  dry  matter. 

2  Ibs.  X  0.372  =  0.744  Ibs.  of  digestible  protein. 

2  Ibs.  X  0.169  —  0.338  Ibs.  of  digestible  carbohydrates. 

2  Ibs.  X  0.122  --  0.244  Ibs.  of  digestible  fats. 

In  the  same  way  we  arrive  at  the  digestible  amounts  contained 
in  6  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn,  6  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  and  10  Ibs.  of 
timothy  hay.  Then  we  add  together  the  dry  matter  and  digesti- 
ble nutrients  in  the  cotton-seed  meal,  shelled  corn,  wheat  bran 
and  timothy  hay  and  compare  the  result  with  the  standard. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

T    8lfi 

O-j  .jQ 

o  468 

•33° 
A  or>8 

o  2«;8 

•o°4 

c   086 

8  680 

O  280 

•jo-* 

21  166 

2  218 

•o4u 
noi8 

o  804 

To  reduce  the  fat  to  terms  of  carbohydrates  we  must  multiply 
by  2.25.  0.804  X  2.25  =  1.809.  11.038  +  1.809  =  12.847  Ibs. 
total  digestible  carbohydrates.  12.847  (total  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates) -f-  2.218  (digestible  protein)  =  5.8.  That  is,  the 
nutritive  ratio  is  i:  5.8.  This  trial  ration  is  stated  as  follows: 


"SETS' 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Ration       •      •              •  •  • 

T2  8^17 

T-e  8 

Standard  •    •         •           •             

2"i                       2   1 

IA  1 

i  .5.0 
I  '6  2 

•'o-                 ^-o 

A4-O 

Balancing  the  Ration. — This  trial  ration  is  not  entirely  satis- 
factory. It  is  almost  correct  for  dry  matter  and  near  enough 
to  the  standard  in  protein.  It  is  too  low  in  carbohydrates.  We 
must  correct  the  ration  to  make  it  more  nearly  approximate  the 
standard.  Let  us  add  3  Ibs.  of  timothy  hay  and  see  what  effect 
it  has  on  balancing  the  ration. 


144    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

i  8^6 

On  A  A 

o  718 

O  244 

5i6d. 

o  468 

4  008 

O  2S8 

5  286 

o  726 

2   7C2 

o  162 

1  1  284 

o  16A 

'•ao-* 

56/12 

o  182 

21  77O 

2  "*O2 

1  2  7.4.O 

o  846 

The  ration  as  it  now  stands. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

27  77 

2  ~\Q2 

M244 

1-.6  2 

27 

2  ^ 

\A     7 

1-6  2 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  get  the  exact  amounts  as  laid 
down  in  the  standard.  The  above  ration  is  perhaps  nearer  the 
standard  than  one  will  ordinarily  approximate. 

Rations  for  Animals  Weighing  More  or  Less  Than  1,000  Lbs. — 

If  animals  weigh  more  or  less  than  1,000  Ibs.  it  is  necessary 
to  increase  or  decrease  the  amounts  of  the  feed  proportionately. 
The  nutritive  ratio,  however,  should  remain  the  same.  In  the 
above  example  suppose  the  horse  weighs  1,200  Ibs.,  then  we  would 
increase  the  amounts  of  feed  one-fifth.  That  is,  instead  of  feed- 
ing 2  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  6  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn,  6  Ibs.  of 
wheat  bran  and  13  Ibs.  of  timothy  hay  we  would  feed  2.4  Ibs. 
of  cotton-seed  meal,  7.2  Ibs.  shelled  corn,  7.2  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran 
and  15.6  Ibs.  of  timothy  hay.  If  the  animal  weighed  less  than 
1,000  Ibs.  the  ration  should  be  proportionately  reduced.  Some- 
times the  individuality  of  the  animal  must  be  considered.  Dairy 
cattle  weighing  700  Ibs.  giving  25  Ibs.  of  milk  need  more  feed 
than  dairy  cattle  weighing  the  same  but  only  giving  15  Ibs.  of 
milk. 

Terms  of  Nutritive  Ratio. — Narrow,  wide  and  medium  are  the 
terms  applied  to  nutritive  ratios. 


HOW    TO    BALANCE   A    RATION 


145 


Narrow  Ration. — A  narrow  ration  is  one  in  which  the  pro- 
portion of  protein  is  large  as  compared  to  the  carbohydrates.  A 
ration  having  a  nutritive  ratio  less  than  1 :  5.5  is  considered 
narrow. 

A  narrow  ration. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

2   7^/1 

i  1  1  6 

Ocr>7 

o  ^66 

8  810 

I   2  IO 

c  270 

1  1  ^60 

I    ^7^ 

•V^u 
521  c 

o  1  80 

MO"" 

"tJO 

28  Ibs    total    

2C    1  24 

3QOI 

9  662 

o  816 

Nutritive  ratio 1:2.9 

The  protein  in  the  above  ration  is  high  as  compared  to  the 
carbohydrates.  Nitrogenous  ration  is  another  name  sometimes 
applied  to  a  narrow  ration  because  of  the  predominance  of 
nitrogenous  substances  (protein). 

Wide  Ration. — A  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  one  where  the  pro- 
portion of  carbohydrates  is  large  as  compared  to  the  protein. 
Such  a  ration  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  more  than  1 :  8.0 

A  wide  ration. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

p    Ihs 

4A^O 

O  465 

2  -280 

O.I7S 

10  Ibs 

8  4QO 

O  44O 

6  ooo 

O  2QO 

T-      IKc 

J  ^  O2O 

O  4.2O 

6  510 

O.  2IO 

total 

2C  060 

I   "^2^ 

14  800 

o  675 

Z0-VUI~' 

Nutritive  ratio 1:12.4 

This  style  of  ration  is  sometimes  called  carbonaceous  on  ac- 
count of  the  high  proportion  of  carbohydrates,  but  the  term 
is  incorrect  because  protein  as  well  as  carbohydrates  contains 
carbonaceous  compounds. 


146      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Medium  Ration. — A  ration  with  a  nutritive  ratio  between  1 15.5 
and  i :  8.0  is  called  a  medium  ration. 
A  medium  ration. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

3  Ibs. 
6  Ibs. 
15  Ibs. 
5  Ibs. 

2-754 
5-274 
11.580 
4.580 

0.471 
0.768 
0.420 
0-530 

1.089 
3.180 
6-345 
1-945 

12.559 

0.153 
0.204 
0.105 
0.045 

corn  stover    .... 

alfalfa  Viflv        •  •»•  ! 

29  Ibs. 

24.188 

2.189 

0.057 

Nutritive  ratio   j  :6.3 


SECTION  XXIV. 


AMOUNTS  OF  ROUGHAGE  AND  CONCENTRATES  TO  FEED. 

Amounts  of  Roughage  and  Cencentrates  to  Feed. — In  compound- 
ing rations  for  live  stock  it  is  necessary  that  the  proper  amounts 
of  roughage  and  concentrates  accompany  each  other.  It  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  state  just  the  amounts  of  roughage  and 
grain  to  furnish  animals  for  different  purposes,  as  available  feeds 
and  prices  influence  the  make  up  of  the  ration.  The  following 
considerations  therefore  are  only  approximate. 

Milch  Cows. — In  rations  for  milch  cows  we  should  aim  to  sup- 
ply 12-14  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  from  roughage  and  the  balance 
with  8-12  Ibs.  of  grain.  Sometimes  as  high  as  50  Ibs.  of  silage 
are  fed  to  milch  cows  but  usually  30  to  40  Ibs.  are  sufficient. 

Fattening  Cattle  do  well  on  2  Ibs.  of  grain  to  I  Ib.  of  roughage. 
8  to  10  Ibs.  of  roughage  and  15  to  18  Ibs.  of  grain  per  1,000 
Ibs.  live  weight  are  perhaps  sufficient  for  this  class  of  animal. 

Horses  or  Mules. — For  horses  or  mules  10  to  12  Ibs.  of  hay 
are  usually  enough,  i  Ib.  of  roughage  to  100  Ibs.  live  weight  is 
a  crude  method  of  estimating  the  quantity  of  roughage  for  a 
horse  or  mule.  A  horse  or  mule  weighing  1,200  Ibs.  would 
therefore  receive,  according  to  this  method,  12  Ibs.  of  hay. 

When  the  concentrates  of  a  ration  are  carbohydrate  in  char- 
acter, the  roughage  should  be  nitrogenous  (legumes  for  example) 
and  should  the  concentrates  be  nitrogenous  the  roughage  should 
be  relatively  high  in  carbohydrates  (grass  hay  for  example). 
In  other  words  the  roughage  and  concentrates  should  be  com- 
plements of  each  other. 

i.  A  few  illustrations  perhaps  will  make  these  points  clearer. 
The  standard  for  a  horse  weighing  1,000  Ibs.,  doing  hard  work, 
is  according  to  Table  II : 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible  protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

Nutritive  ratio 

23 

2-3 

14-3 

1:6.2 

F48      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

A  ration  to  meet  the  protein  standard  using  red  top  hay  alone 
would  take  48  Ibs. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

AT.  728 

2   1OA 

2? 

2   1 

*oOy 

T   A      •? 

*•& 

14-o 

There  is  an  excess  of  20.7  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  and  a  waste  of 
9.29  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates  in  such  a  ration.  A  horse  could  not 
perform  hard  work  with  this  ration  as  it  would  be  impossible  for 
this  class  of  animal  to  consume  such  a  large  quantity  of  hay. 

2.  Using  15  Ibs.  of  corn  (grain),  it  will  take  40  Ibs.  of  tim- 
othy hay  to  approximate  the  protein  requirement. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

15 
40 

13.410 
34.720 

1.170 
1.  1  2O 

IT.47I 
18  620 

55 

48.130 

2.290 

30.091 

This  combination  is  unsatisfactory  because  it  exceeds  the  dry 
matter  standard  by  25  Ibs.  and  there  is  a  waste  of  15.7  Ibs.  of 
carbohydrates.  Both  of  these  feeds  are  proportionately  high 
in  carbohydrates. 

3.  Substituting  alfalfa  hay  (which  is  nitrogenous)  for  the 
timothy  it  will  take  10  Ibs.  of  the  former  to  satisfy  the  protein 
standard  with  15  Ibs.  of  corn. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

I  "Z.  A1O 

I   1  70 

1  1  A1  1 

9  1  60 

I  060 

4OQ1 

•uVo 

22  ^7O 

22-70 

i  ^  ^6.1 

Qi  o  rirlarfl 

2  T. 

2  "^ 

I  A   > 

'4-O 

This  combination  practically  balances  the  ration  although  the 
carbohydrates   are   slightly   in   excess.     In   this   ration   the   corn 


ROUGHAGE:  AND  CONCENTRATES  TO  FEED 


149 


is  proportionately  high  in  carbohydrates  and  the  alfalfa  is  rela- 
tively high  in  protein.  These  feeds  are  then  complements  of 
each  other.  This  ration  should  prove  satisfactory  as  the  total 
feed  is  not  too  large  in  amount  and  the  roughage  is  within  the 
limit  of  the  requirements  for  a  horse. 

4.  Using  oats  alone  would  require  25  Ibs.  to  approximate  the 
standard. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

22  2^ 

2   12^ 

T?    86fl 

O7 

^•OZ0 
2  •? 

M'ovjy 
14  1 

*»O 

A4'O 

A  ration  of  oats  alone  is  not  suitable  because  of  the  excess 
of  concentrate.  Roughage  is  required  for  the  best  results.  Such 
a  ration  would  prove  too  expensive  for  the  economical  feeder. 

5.  If  we  reduce  the  amount  of  oats  to  15  Ibs.  and  add  enough 
red  top  hay  to  meet  the  protein  requirement,  18  Ibs.  will  be 
needed. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

T  r 

Ibs 

oats  

8  321 

Ibs 

1  6  108 

O  864 

8847 

7-7 

Ibs 

2Q  748 

2  25Q 

17  1  68 

36 

This  ration  contains  6.7  Ibs.  too  much  of  dry  matter  and  2.8 
Ibs.  excess  of  carbohydrates. 

6.  It  is  evident  that  a  nitrogenous  roughage  must  be  added 
and  the  amount  of  red  top  hay  reduced. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

I.7QC 

8  121 

7  Ibs   reel  top  liav  

6  177 

0.336 

1  441 

U'O/  / 

o  616 

2  4^6 

2C   221 

2.167 

I4.2I8 

Standard  

2.1 

14  1 

23- 

I5O      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


The  ration  as  it  now  stands  is  properly  balanced.  It  is  not 
enough  too  high  in  dry  matter  to  affect  its  usefulness  and  the 
protein  and  carbohydrates  are  sufficiently  close. 

7.  Generally  a  variation  from  the  standard  shows  a  predomi- 
nance of  carbohydrates  and  dry  matter  but  sometimes  an  excess 
of  protein  is  employed.  The  following  ration  illustrates  a  pre- 
dominance of  protein : 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
pounds 

1  2  Ibs   oats    

10  680 

I  1  16 

6  6=;7 

2  Ibs   cotton-seed,  meal  

1  1  8^6 

O'JAA 

o  887 

1  1  ^A^ 

I   260 

6  881 

Ration  

26  061 

3T2O 

UA2Z 

2^ 

2   "J 

1A  1 

*o* 

•**o 

J4-o 

This  ration  shows  a  waste  of  0.8  of  a  pound  of  protein  which 
is  generally  the  most  expensive  nutrient  in  feed  stuffs.  The 
roughage  in  this  ration  is  also  a  little  high.  The  carbohydrates 
agree  with  the  standard. 

Feeding  Standards  are  Guides.— It  must  be  understood  that  the 
feeding  standards  are  only  guides  and  the  intelligent  feeder  will 
often  find  it  necessary  to  change  the  standard  to  suit  his  con- 
ditions. In  other  words  the  feeder  must  use  the  feeding  stand- 
ards to  approximate  the  requirements  of  his  live-stock  from  the 
feeds  that  are  available  and  cheapest. 

The  following  table  is  given  to  enable  the  feeder  to  compound 
rations  easily.  In  making  rations  for  animals,  large  amounts  of 
the  grain  portion  can  be  mixed  at  one  time.  This  saves  the  trou- 
ble of  mixing  and  calculating  at  every  feeding.  The  measure 
of  roots,  molasses,  hay,  fodder  and  ensilage  can  be  determined 
once  and  fed  accordingly  without  any  inconvenience. 

Suggestion : — Compute  a  ration  for  a  moderately  worked  horse 
weighing  1,000  Ibs.  from  cotton-seed  meal,  wheat  bran  and 
molasses  (cane).  Criticize  this  ration. 

How  much  hay  are  the  horses  or  mules  receiving  per  day 
in  your  community?  Is  this  too  much?  Are  not  some  feeders 


ROUGHAGE  AND  CONCENTRATES  TO  FEED 


allowing  their  horses  all  the  roughage  they  wish?     Is  this  good 
practice  ? 

WEIGHT  AND  MEASURE  OF  FEED  STUFFS1 


One  quart  One  pound 
weighs  measures 
pounds  quarts 


Alfalfa  meal i.o  i.o 

Barley  meal i.i  0.9 

Barley  (whole) 1.5  0.7 

Brewers'  dried  grains 0.6  1.7 

Corn  and  cob  meal 1.4  0.7 

Corn  and  oat  feed 0.7  1.4 

Corn  bran 0.5  2.0 

Corn  meal 1.5  0.7 

Corn  (whole) 1.7  0.6 

Cotton-seed  meal 1.5  0.7 

Cotton-seed  hulls 0.26  3.8 

Distillers'  dried  grains 0.5-0.7  1.0-1.4 

Germ  oil  meal 1.4  0.7 

Gluten  feed 1.3  0.8 

Gluten  meal -. 1.7  0.6 

Hominy  meal I .  I  0.9 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 0.9  i.i 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 1. 1  0.9 

Malt  sprouts 0.6  1.7 

Molasses  (cane,  blackstrap) 3.0  0.3 

Oats  (ground) 0.7  1.4 

Oats  (whole) i.o  i.o 

Rice  bran 0.8  1.3 

Rice  polish 1.2  0.8 

Rye  bran 0.6  1.8 

Rye  meal 1.5  0.7 

Rye  (whole) 1.7  0.6 

Wheat  bran 0.5  2.0 

Wheat  (ground) 1.7  0.6 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 1.2  08 

Wheat  middlings  (standard)  0.8  1.3 

Wheat  mixed  feed  (bran  and  shorts) 0.6  1.7 

Wheat  (whole) 2.0  0.5 


1  The  data  on  wheat  mixed  feed  was  taken  from  Bui.  112,  Massachusetts  Experiment 
Station  ;  the  data  on  alfalfa  meal,  cotton- seed  hulls,  molasses  and  rice  products  were 
worked  out  by  the  writer  ;  the  remaining  data  came  from  Farmers'  Bui.  222. 


SECTION  XXV. 


HOW  TO  IMPROVE  AND  REDUCE  THE  COST  OF  RATIONS.1 

A  Common  Ration. — A  herd  of  milch  cows  is  receiving  the 
following  ration  per  day  of  24  hours,  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight; 
5  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  3  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran,  10  Ibs.  of  red 
clover  hay  (medium)  and  15  Ibs.  of  corn  stover.  Let  us  figure 
this  ration  and  find  out  if  it  is  properly  balanced  for  the  herd 
of  dairy  cows.  Turn  to  Table  I  and  find  that  the  following 
amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  are  present  in  100  Ibs.  of  each 
feed  stuff. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

QI-8 

77  2 

16  Q 

12  2 

88  I 

01  -^ 

12  I 

iu.y 
•JQ  2 

2.7 

8d  7 

6  8 

TS  8 

1.7 

77  2 

2  8 

4.2  ^ 

0.7 

Then  as  5  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  in  the  ration,  we  mul- 
tiply the  amounts  of  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  digestible 
carbohydrates  and  digestible  fat  as  given  above  for  cotton-seed 
meal,  by  5.  Or 

5  X  0.918  =  4.590  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  in  5  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed 
meal. 

5  X  0.372  =  i. 860  Ibs.  of  digestible  protein  in  5  Ibs.  of  cotton- 
seed meal. 

5  X  0.169  =  0.845  lbs-  of  digestible  carbohydrates  in  5  Ibs. 
of  cotton-seed  meal. 

5  X  0.122  =  0.610  Ibs.  of  digestible  fat  in  5  Ibs.  of  cotton- 
seed meal. 

In  the  same  way  we  compute  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the 
wheat  bran,  red  clover  hay  and  corn  stover. 

1  Adapted  from  Halligan's  Fundamentals  of  Agriculture. 


COST    OF    RATIONS 


153 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

I  860 

o  8/15 

•oyu 

o  o8r 

8A1Q 

U'OU>5 
o  680 

•7     c«O 

O  1  7O 

ncSo 

6  1A^ 

OTQC 

u-o4o 

7  ?     TViQ      total 

27  287 

372^ 

I  I   Q/l6 

o  966 

•0*0 

With  the  fat  reduced  to  carbohydrates  the  ration  reads : 


Nutritive 

ratio 

2"   28l 

7.  -127 

14  1195 

1*4  2 

24 

2  5 

IT)  4 

I'S  4 

The  ration  is  too  high  in  dry  matter,  digestible  protein  and 
digestible  carbohydrates.  The  ration  is  also  too  narrow. 

Improving  the  Ration. — Let  us  try  to  improve  this  ration  by 
supplying  less  of  the  nutrients  and  particularly  less  protein.  By 
consulting  Table  I  we  learn  that  cotton-seed  meal  has  more  di- 
gestible protein  than  any  of  the  other  feeds  in  this  ration.  Sup- 
pose then  we  reduce  the  amount  of  cotton-seed  meal  to  3  Ibs. 
Then  the  ration  will  be  as  follows: 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 

pounds 

2-754 
2.643 
8.470 
11.580 

1.116 

0.363 
0.680 
0.420 

0.507 
1.176 
3.580 
6-345 

1  1.  608 

I3-232 
13.4 

0.366 
O.oSl 
0.170 
0.105 

15  Ibs.  corn  stover  

7T   IVm    total 

25-447 

25-447 
24. 

2.579 

2-579 
2-5 

0.722 

Nutritive 
ratio 

i:5.I 

i:5.4 

The  ration  as  it  now  stands  approximates  the  standard.     It  is 
close  enough  to  the  standard  for  all  practical  purposes. 


154      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


How  to  Reduce  the  Cost  of  a  Ration. — John  Smith  has  a  large 
farm  and  he  is  feeding  his  15  horses  which  weigh  1,000  Ibs.,  that 
are  doing  hard  work,  the  following  ration. 


Dry  mattei 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 


Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Digestible 

fat 
pounds 


8  Ibs.  oats    

4  Ibs.  shelled  corn. 

6  Ibs.  wheat  bran  •  • 

10  Ibs.  timothy  hay 


28  Ibs.  total, 


Ration . . 
Standard 


7.120 
3.576 
5-286 
8.680 

24.662 


24.662 
23- 


0.736 
0.312 
0.726 
0.280 

2.054 


2.054 
2-3 


3-784 
2.672 
2.352 
4.340 

13.148 


14-9705 
14-3 


0.336 
0.172 
0.162 
0.140 

0.810 

Nutritive 
ratio 

I-.7-3 
1:6.2 


Cost  of  the  Ration. — Let  us  learn  what  it  is  costing  John  Smith 
to  feed  his  horses.  The  following  are  the  market  prices  of  some 
of  the  feeds  which  are  available  to  John  Smith. 

Per  ton  of  2,000 
pounds 

Oats 135-00 

Shelled  corn 28.00 

Wheat  bran 25.00 

Timothy  hay 18.00 

Crab  grass  hay 15.00 

Cotton-seed  meal 26.00 

Corn  and  cob  meal 22.00 

Oats  cost  $35  per  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  One  pound  of  oats  costs 
$0.0175.  Then  8  Ibs.  will  cost  8  X  0.0175  =  $0.14.  In  a  simi- 
lar way  the  cost  of  the  shelled  corn,  wheat  bran  and  timothy 
hay  are  calculated. 

Cost 

8  Ibs.  oats $  o.  14 

4  Ibs.  shelled  corn 0.056 

6  Ibs.  wheat  bran 0.075 

10  Ibs.  timothy  hay 0.090 

Total  cost  per  day's  ration =$  0.361 


COST    OF    RATIONS 


155 


It  is  costing  John  Smith  $0.361  per  day  per  horse.  Or  it  is 
costing  him  15  X  $0.361  :  =  $5.415  for  his  15  horses  per  day. 
We  will  now  substitute  some  other  feeds  and  see  if  we  cannot 
reduce  John  Smith's  feed  bill. 

A  Cheaper  Ration. — Oats,  shelled  corn  and  timothy  hay  are  the 
expensive  feeds  in  this  ration,  considering  the  nutrients  they 
furnish.  By  perusing  Table  I  we  find  that  cotton-seed  meal 
contains  a  high  per  cent,  of  digestible  protein.  We  can  substi- 
tute this  feed  for  oats.  Shelled  corn  and  corn  and  cob  meal 
contain  about  the  same  amounts  of  dry  matter  and  digestible 
carbohydrates,  so  we  may  substitute  corn  and  cob  meal  for 
shelled  corn.  The  shelled  corn  is  richer  in  digestible  protein 
than  the  corn  and  cob  meal  but  we  can  get  this  nutrient  cheaper 
from  our  wheat  bran.  The  crab  grass  hay  is  of  about  the  same 
nutritive  value  as  timothy  hay.  It  is  also  cheaper  so  we  will 
use  crab  grass  hay  in  place  of  timothy  hay.  A  balanced  ration 
from  these  feeds  would  be  as  stated. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

1.836 

5-943 
7.048 
10.764 

25.591 

25-591 
23- 

0.744 
0.308 
0.968 
0.264 

0.333 
4.200 
3-I36 
5.136 

0.244 
0.203 
0.216 
0.072 

0.735 

Nutritive 
ratio 

1:6.3 

1:6.2 

20  Itm    totil 

2.284 

2.284 
2-3 

I2.8lO 

14.464 
14.3 

R  atinti 

Stfltlfl  Af-fl 

Compared  to  the  Standard. — This  ration  is  better  than  the  one 
John  Smith  is  feeding.  It  comes  nearer  the  standard.  The  dry 
matter  and  carbohydrates  in  John  Smith's  ration  approximate  the 
standard  but  the  protein  is  too  low  and  his  ration  is  too  wide. 
The  dry  matter  in  this  second  ration  is  a  little  high,  but  animals 
can  take  care  of  an  excess  of  dry  matter  within  certain  limits 
as  previously  explained.  The  protein  and  carbohydrates  in  the 


156    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE;  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

balanced  ration  are  very  close  to  the   standard.     The  nutritive 
ratio  very  closely  approximates   the   standard  nutritive   ratio. 
The  Saving. — At  the  market  prices  the  new  ration  will  cost, 

2  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal $0.026 

7  Ibs.  corn  and  cob  meal 0.077 

8  Ibs.  wheat  bran o.  100 

12  Ibs.  crab  grass  hay 0.090 

Total  cost  per  ration $o.  293 

In  other  words  this  ration  will  cost  John  Smith  $0.293  per 
day  per  horse.  The  ration  of  John  Smith's  costs  $0.361  per 
day  per  horse.  This  new  ration  will  save  John  Smith  $0.361 
-  $0.293  =  $0.068  per  day  per  horse.  On  15  horses  the  sav- 
ing will  be  15  X  $0.068  =  $1.02  per  day.  In  a  year  the  saving 
will  amount  to  365  X  $1.02  =  $372.30.  This  example  just  cited 
is  not  exceptional.  There  are  many  farmers,  livery  men  and 
other  feeders  who  throw  away  money  every  year  because  of  a 
poor  selection  of  feeds  and  still  they  do  not  always  get  the  best 
returns.  This  second  ration,  as  it  more  closely  approximates 
the  standard,  is  indeed  a  better  one,  besides  being  cheaper  than 
John  Smith's  ration. 

Suggestion : — Select  a  few  rations  fed  in  the  county  and  have 
the  students  ascertain  the  market  values  of  the  feeds  and  re- 
duce the  cost  and  improve  these  rations  as  much  as  possible. 


SECTION   XXVI. 


TABLE  OF  AMOUNTS  OF  DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS  IN  FEED   STUFFS. 


Table  III  which  follows,  is  given  to  save  the  student  consid- 
erable work  in  figuring  rations.  It  gives  the  dry  matter  and 
the  digestible  nutrients  in  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  7,  and  10  pounds  of 
several  feed  stuffs  commonly  used. 

In  Table  I  the  composition  and  digestible  nutrients  of  feed 
stuffs  are  given  but  in  figuring  rations  from  Table  I  a  great 
deal  of  work  is  necessary.  The  figures  in  Table  I  are  based  on 
loo  Ibs.  of  material  so  in  obtaining  data  for  any  amount  less 
than  zoo  Ibs.  involves  a  chance  for  error. 

Use  of  Table  III. — Let  us  suppose  we  wish  to  feed  a  ration 
composed  of  5  Ibs.  of  oats,  10  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  and  4  Ibs.  of 
corn  (grain)  per  day.  By  referring  to  Table  III  we  find  that 
these  quantities  of  the  stated  feeds  carry  the  following  amounts 
of  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

44^o 

O  4.6^ 

2  180 

O  17^ 

3  r?6 

0-1  1  2 

2  672 

o  172 

O/(J 
Q  1  60 

I  060 

?  Sao 

O  OQO 

17  1  86 

I  8^7 

8  QJ.2 

O  437 

17  186 

I  8*7 

Q  Q2^ 

The  digestible  fat  as  given  in  the  table  must  be  reduced  to 
carbohydrates  to  get  the  total  carbohydrates.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  do  this  once,  however,  after  the  amounts  for  the  ration 
have  been  added,  as  was  done  above. 

If  amounts  other  than  those  given  in  the  table  are  desired  it 
is  only  necessary  to  multiply,  divide  or  add  some  of  those  given. 
For  example,  if  the  amounts  of  dry  matter  and  digestible  nu- 
trients for  6  Ibs.  are  wished  we  would  multiply  the  amounts 
given  for  3  Ibs.,  by  2.  If  9  Ibs.  are  wanted,  add  the  amounts 


158      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABIvE  III. — DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN 
i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.891 
1.782 
2.673 
3-564 
4-455 
6.237 
8.910 

0.087 
0.174 
0.26[ 

0.348 

0-435 
o  609 

0.870 

0.656 
I.3I2 
1.968 
2.624 
3.280 

4.592 
6.560 

0.016 

0.032 
0.048 
0.064 
O.oSo 
O.II2 

0.160 

Tlppfr  mi  In  (dried  ^ 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 
7 

10 

0.920 
1.840 
2.760 
3.680 
4  600 
6.440 
9.200 

0.06  1 

O.I22 
0.183 
0.244 

0.305 
0.427 

0.610 

0687 

1-374 
2.o6l 
2.748 

3-435 
4.809 
6.870 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 
7 

10 

0.918 
1.836 
2-754 
3.672 

4-59° 
6.426 
9.180 

0.157 
0.314 
0.471 
0.628 
0.785 
1.099 
1.570 

0.363 
0.726 
1.089 
1-452 
1.815 
2.541 
3-630 

0.051 

O.  IO2 

0.153 
O.2O4 
0.255 

0-357 
0.510 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.874 
1.748 
2.622 
3-496 
4-370 
6.118 
8.740 

0.077 
0.154 
0.231 
0.308 
0.385 
0.539 
0.770 

0.492 
0.984 
1.476 
1.968 
2.460 

3-444 
4.920 

O.OlS 
0.036 
0.054 
O.O72 
0.090 
0.126 
O.lSo 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

2^682 
3.576 
4.470 
6.258 
8.940 

0.078 
0.156 
0.234 
0.312 
0.390 
0.546 
0.780 

0.668 
L336 
2.004 
2.672 
3-340 
4.676 
6.680 

0.043 
0.086 
0.129 
0.172 
0.215 
0.301 
0.430 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.850 
1.700 
2.550 
3.400 
4.250 
5.950 
8.500 

0.055 
o.  no 

0.165 

O.22O 
0.275 
0.385 
0.55° 

0.645 
1.290 

1-935 
2.580 

3.225 
4.515 
6.450 

0-035 
0.070 
0.105 
O.14O 

0.175 
0.245 
0.350 

r 

2 

3 

0.849 
1.698 

2-547 

O.O44 
0.088 
0.132 

0.600 
i.  200 
1.800 

0.029 
0.058 
0.087 

TABLE    OF    AMOUNTS    OF    DRY    MATTER 


159 


TABLE  III. —DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  r,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS.— (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pouuds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 

pounds 

Corn  and  cob  meal  (cont'd)  • 

4 
5 

7 
10 

3-396 
4-245 
5-943 
8.490 

0.176 
O.22O 

0.308 

0.440 

2.400 
3.000 
4.2OO 
6.000 

O.  Il6 

0.145 
0.203 
0.290 

o  807 

Of  OC 

OI  7^ 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

1-794 
2.691 
3-538 

4-485 
6.279 
8.970 

0.250 

0.375 
0.500 
0.625 

0.875 

1.250 

0.600 
0.900 
i.  200 
1.500 

2.IOO 
3.000 

0.346 

0.519 
0.692 
0.865 
1.  211 
1.730 

n  RSn 

O  OT7 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

1.778 
2.667 
3-556 

4-445 
6.223 
8.890 

0.006 
0.009 

O.OI2 
0.015 
0.021 
0.030 

O-331 
0.662 

0-993 
1.324 

1.655 
2.317 
3.310 

0.034 
0.051 
0.068 
0.085 
0.119 
0.170 

n  018 

,. 

2 

3 
4 

5 
7 

10 

1.836 
2-754 
3-672 

4-59° 
6.426 
9.180 

0.372 
0-744 

1.116 
1.488 
i.  860 
2.604 
3.720 

0.338 
0.507 
0.676 
0.845 
1.183 
1.690 

0.244 

0.366 
0.488 

0.610 
0.854 
i.  220 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

0.920 
1.840 
2.760 
3.680 
4.600 
6.440 
9.200 

0.231 
0.462 
0.693 
0.924 
1.165 
1.627 
2.310 

°-394 
0.788 
1.182 
1.576 
1.970 
2.758 
3-940 

0.230 

o.345 
0.460 

0.575 
0.805 
1.150 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.903 
i.  806 
2.709 
3.612 

4.515 
6.321 
9.030 

°-l2>5 
0.270 
0.405 
0.540 
0.675 
0-945 
1.350 

°.5r3 
1.026 

1-539 
2.052 

2.565 
3-591 
5-130 

0.040 
0.060 
0.080 

O.I  00 

0.140 

0.200 

Olnten  feerl 

f. 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

0.915 
1.830 

2.745 
3.660 

4-575 
6.405 

0.223 
0.446 
0.669 
0.892 

I.H5 

1.561 

0.529 
1.058 

1.587 
2.116 
2-645 
3-703 

0.052 
0.078 
0.104 
0.130 
0.182 

l6o      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  III.— DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued} 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Gluten  feed  (continued)  .  .  .  . 

10 

9-I50 

2.230 

5.290 

0.260 

I 

o  918 

o  2=;8 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

1.836 

2-754 
3.672 

4-59° 
6.426 
9.180 

0.516 
0.774 
1.032 
1.290 
i.  806 
2.580 

U"!+OO 

0.866 
1.299 
1.732 
2.165 
3-031 
4-33° 

0.220 
0.330 
0.440 
0.550 
0.770 
1.  110 

i 

o  880 

O  OTS 

O  5S2 

'    o  068 

2 

3 
4 

5 

7 

10 

v.wy 
1.778 
2.667 
3-556 
4-445 
6.223 
8.890 

0.150 
0.225 
0.300 
0-375 
0.525 
0.750 

I.I04 
1.656 
2.208 
2.760 
3.S64 
5.520 

0.136 

0.204 
0.272 

0.340 
0.476 
0.680 

Hominy  meal  

i 

o  800 

0068 

o  508 

o  072 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

w.uyj 

1.780 
2.670 

3-560 
4.450 
6.230 
8.900 

0.136 
0.204 
0.272 
0.340 
0.476 
0.680 

woyo 

1.196 
1.794 
2.392 
2.990 
4.186 
5.980 

0.144 

0.216 

0.288 

0.360 

0.504 

0.720 

i 

O  QO7 

o  078 

O  571 

O  O2  1 

2 

3 
4 

5 

7 

10 

I.8I4 
3.721 
3.628 
4-535 
6.349 
9.070 

0.156 
0.234 
0.312 

0.390 
0.546 
0.780 

1.142 

1.713 
2.284 

2.855 

3-997 
5-7io 

0.042 

0.063 

0.084 
0.105 
0.147 

O.2IO 

Linseed  meal  (old  process)  • 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

0.908 

1.816 
2.724 
3-632 
4-540 
6.356 
9.080 

0.293 
0.586 
0.879 

1.172 

1.465 
2.051 
2.930 

0.327 
0.654 
0.981 
1.308 

1-635 
2.289 
3-270 

O.O7O 
O.I4O 
O.21O 
O.28O 
0.350 
0.490 
O.7OO 

Linseed  meal  (new  process)  . 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.899 
1.798 
2.697 
3.596 
4-495 
6.293 
8.990 

0.282 
0.564 
0.846 
1.128 
1.410 

1.974 
2.820 

0.401 
0.802 
1.203 
1.604 
2.005 
2.807 
4.010 

0.028 
0.056 
0.084 
0.112 
0.140 
0.196 
0.280 

Malt  sprouts  

j 

o  898 

o  186 

O  ^71 

o  01  7 

TABLE    OF    AMOUNTS    OF    DRY    MATTER 


161 


TABLE  III.— DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS.— (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Malt  sprouts  (continued)  •  •  • 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

1.796 
2.694 
3-592 
4.490 
6.286 
8.980 

0.372 
0.558 
0.744 
0.930 
1.302 
1.860 

0.742 
I.II3 
1.484 
1.855 
2-597 
3.710 

0.034 
0.051 
0.068 
0.085 
0.119 
0.170 

TVT      1                      1  K         «-  \ 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.792 
1.584 
2.376 
3.168 
3.960 

5-544 
7.920 

0-595 
1.190 

1-785 
2.380 

2-975 
4.165 
5-950 





..       . 

Molasses  (cane,  blackstrap). 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

0.776 
1-552 
2.328 
3.104 
3.880 
5-432 
7.760 

0.659 
1.318 
1.977 
2.636 

3-295 
4.613 

6.590 





Oats  .    .                    

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

0.890 
1.780 
2.670 
3.56o 
4.450 
6.230 
8.900 

0.093 
0.186 
0.279 
0.372 
0.465 
0.651 
0.930 

0.476 
0.952 
1.428 
1.904 
2.380 
3-332 
4.760 

0-035 
0.070 
0.105 
0.140 

0.175 
0.245 

0.350 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.893 
1.786 
2.679 
3-572 
4465 
6.251 
8.930 

0.429 
0.858 
1.287 
I.7l6 
2.145 
3-003 
4.290 

0.228 

0.456 
0.684 
0.912 
1.140 
1.596 
2.280 

0.069 
0.138 
0.207 
0.276 

0-345 
0.483 
0.690 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.872 
1.744 
2616 
3.488 
4.360 
6.104 
8.720 

0.048 
0.096 
0.144 
0.192 
0.240 
0.336 
0.480 

0.722 
1.444 
2.166 
2.888 
3.610 

5-054 
7.220 

0.003 
0.006 
0.009 
O.OI2 
0.015 
0.021 
0.030 

Rice  bran  (  15  per  cent,  hulls) 

i 

2 

3 
4 

0.901 
1.  802 
2.703 
3.604 

0.064 
0.128 
o.  192 

0.256 

0.367 

0-734 

I.IOI 

1.468 

0.054 
0.108 

0.162 
0.216 

l62      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


III. — DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  CF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Rice  bran  (15  percent,  hulls) 

5 

7 

10 

4-5°5 
6.307 
9.010 

0.320 
0.448 
0.640 

'•835 
2.569 
3.670 

0.270 
0.378 
0.540 

I 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.914 

1.828 
2.742 
3.656 
4.570 
6.398 
9.140 

O.o86 
0.172 
0.258 

0-344 
0.430 
0.602 
0.86o 

0.400 
0.8oo 
1.200 
1.  600 
2.OOO 
2.800 
4.OOO 

0.059 
0.118 
0.177 
0.236 
0.295 
0.413 
0.590 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.885 
1.770 
2.655 
3-540 
4425 
6.195 
8.850 

0.073 
0.146 
0.219 
0.292 

0.365 
0.5II 
0.730 

0.604 
1.  208 

1.812 
2.416 
3.020 

4.228 

6.040 

0.043 
0.086 

o.  129 

0.172 
0.215 
0.301 
0.430 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

0.884 
1.768 
2.652 
3.536 
4.420 
6.188 
8.840 

0.099 
0.198 
0.297 
0.396 

0-495 
0.693 
0.990 

0.676         o.on 

1.352             0.022 
2.028             0.033 
2.704       '       0.044 
3.380             0.055 
4.732             0.077 

6.760     \     o.i  10 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.895 
1.790 
2.685 
3.580 

4-475 
6.265 
8.950 

0.102 
0.204 
0.306 
0.408 
0.510 
0.714 
1.020 

0.692 

1.384 

2.076 

2.768 
3.460 
4.844 

6.920 

0.017 
0.034 
0.051 
0.068 
0.085 
O.II9 
O.I7O 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.881 
1.762 
2.643 
3.524 
4.405 
6.167 

8.810 

0.  121 
0.242 

0.363 
0.484 
0.605 
0.847 
I.2IO 

0.392 
0.784 

1.176 

1.568 

1.960 

2.744 
3.920 

0.027 
0.054 
O.oSl 
0.108 
0.135 

o.  189 
0.270 

\Vheat  middlings  

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

0.879 
1.758 
2.637 
3-516 
4-395 
•   6.153 

0.128 
0.256 
0.384 
0.512 
0.640 
0.896 

0.530 

1.  060 

1.590 

2.I2O 
2.650 
3.710 

0.034 
0.068 

0.102 
0.136 
0.170 
0.238 

TABLE;  OF  AMOUNTS  OF  DRY  MATTER 


i63 


TABLE  III.— DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OK  FEED  STUFFS.— (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Wheat  middlings  (cont'd)  .  • 

10 

8.790 

1.280 

5.300 

0.340 

Corn  fodder  (whole  plant)  •  • 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.678 
1.356 
2.034 
2.712 
3.390 
4.746 
6.780 

O.O26 
0.052 
0.078 
o.  104 

0.130 
0.182 
0.260 

o-375 
0-750 
1.125 
1.500 

1.875 
2.625 
3-750 

0.009 
0.018 
0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.91  1 
1.822 
2-733 
3.644 
4-555 
6.377 
9.110 

0.053 

0.106 
0.159 

0.212 
0.26VS 
0.371 
0.530 

0-433 
0.866 
1.299 
1-732 
2.165 

3.031 
4-330 

0.020 
0.040 
0.060 
0.080 
O.IOO 
0.140 
0.200 

I 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.919 
1.838 
2-757 
3-676 
4-595 
6-433 
9.190 

0.010 
O.O2O 
0.030 
O.O4O 
0.050 
0.070 
O.IOO 

0.647 
1.294 
1.941 
2.588 
3-235 
4-529 
6.470 

0.003 
O.OO6 
0.009 
0.012 
0.015 
0.021 
0.030 

Corn  stover  (whole  plant  ex- 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.772 

1-544 
2.316 
3.088 
3.860 

5-404 
7.720 

0.028 
0.056 
.0.084 
O.II2 
0.140 
0.196 
0.280 

0.423 
0.846 
1.269 
1.692 
2.115 
2.961 
4-236 

O.OO7 
O.OI4 
0.021 
0.028 
0.035 
0.049 
0.070 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.207 
0.414 
0.621 
0.828 

1-035 
1.449 
2.070 

O.OO9 
0.018 
0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

0.120 
0.240 
0.360 
0.480 
0.600 
0.840 
I.2OO 

0.003 

0.006 
0.009 
0.012 
0.015 
O.O2I 
0.030 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.206 
o  412 
0.618 
0.824 
1.030 
1.442 
2.060 

O.OO6 
O.OI2 
O.OlS 
O.O24 
0.030 
0.042 
0.060 

0.122 
0.244 
0.366 
0.488 

0.610 
0.854 

1.220 

0.004 
0.008 
O.OI2 

0.016 

0.020 
0.028 
0.040 

i 

0.210 

0.019 

0.102 

0.004 

164      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  HI. — DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Barley  (green)  (continued). 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.420 
0.630 
0.840 
1.050 
1.470 
2.100 

0.038 
0.057 
0.076 
0.095 

0-133 
0.190 

0.204 
0.306 
0.408 
0.510 
0.714 
I.O2O 

0.008 
0.012 

0.016 

O.O2O 
0.028 
0.040 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.378 
0.756 
I-I34 
I.5I2 
1.890 
2.646 
3.780 

0.025 
0.050 
0.075 
O.1OO 

0.125 
0.175 

0.250 

0.188 
0.376 
0.564 
0.752 
0.940 
I.3I6 
1.  880 

O.OIO 
O.O2O 
0.030 
O.O4O 
0.050 
O.O/O 
O.  IOO 

i 

2 

3 
4 

5 

7 

10 

0.234 
0.468 
0.702 
0.936 
I.I70 
1.638 
2.340 

O.O2O 
0.040 
O.o6o 
O.O8O 
O.1OO 

0.140 

O.2OO 

O.I4I 
0.282 
0.423 
0.564 
0.705 
0.987 
I.4IO 

0.004 

0.008 

0.012 

0.016 

O.O2O 

0.028 
0.040 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.894 
1.788 
2.682 
3-576 
4.470 
6.258 
8.940 

0.046 
0.092 
0.138 
0.184 
0.230 
0.322 
0.460 

0.391 
0.782 

I-  173 
1.564 

1.955 

2-737 
3.910 

0.009 
0.018 
0.027 
0.036 

0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.897 
1.794 
2.691 
3.588 
4.485 
6.279 
8.970 

0.022 
0.044 
0.066 
0.088 
O.I  10 

0.154 

0.220 

0.428 
0.856 
1.284 
1.712 
2.140 
2.996 
4.280 

0.006 

0.012 

0.018 
0.024 
0.030 
0.042 
0.060 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.898 
1.796 
2.694 
3.592 
4490 
6.286 
8.980 

0.032 
0.064 
0.096 
0.128 

0.160 
0.224 
0.320 

0.413 
0.826 
1.239 
1.652 
2.065 
2.891 
4.130 

0.008 
0.016 
0.024 
0.032 

0.040 

0.056 

0.080 

Kentucky  blue  grass  hay  .  .  . 

i 

2 

3 
4 

0.788 
1.576 
2.364 

3-r52 

0.048 
0.096 
0.144 
0.192 

0-373 
0.746 
1.  119 
1.492 

O.O2O 

0.040 
0.060 
0.080 

TABLE)    OF    AMOUNTS    OF    DRY    MATTER 


165 


TABLE  III.— DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Kentucky  blue  grass  hay 

5 

7 

10 

3-940 
5.516 
7.880 

0.240 
0.336 
0.480 

1.865 
2.6l  I 

3.730 

O.I  00 
0.140 
0.200 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.884 
1.768 
2.652 
3-536 
4.420 
6.188 
8.840 

0.024 
0.048 
0.072 
0.096 
0.120 
0.168 
0.240 

0.299 
0.598 
0.897 

1.196 

1.495 
2.093 
2.990 

0.009 
O.OlS 
O.O27 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

Meadow  fescue  hay  

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.860 
1.720 
2.580 
3-440 

4-300 
6.020 

8.600 

O.O^O 
O.O6O 
O.O9O 
O.  T2O 
0.150 
O.2IO 
0.300 

0.448 
0.896 

1-344 
1.792 
2.240 
3.136 
4.480 

0.009 
0.018 
0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

Millet  hay  (  cat  tail  ) 

i 

2 

3 
4 

5 
7 

10 

0.895 
1.790 
2.685 
3.580 
4.475 
6.265 
8.950 

O.O62 
O.I24 

o.i  86 
0.248 
0.310 

0-434 
0.620 

0.421 
0.842 
1.263 
1.684 
2.105 
2.947 
4.210 

0.009 
O.OlS 
O.O27 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

Mixed  grass  and  clover  hay. 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.871 
1.742 
2.613 
3.484 
4.355 
6.097 
8.710 

0.059 
0.118 
0.177 
0.236 
0.295 
0.413 
0.590 

0.409 
0.818 
1.227 
1.636 
2.045 
2.863 
4.090 

0.012 
0.024 
0.036 
0.048 
0.060 
0.084 
O.I  2O 

Oat  hay  (cut  in  milk  stage)  . 

i 

2 

3 
4 

5 

7 

10 

0.850 
1.700 

2.550 
3.400 
4.250 
5.950 
8.500 

0.050 

O.  IOO 

0.150 

O.2OO 
0.250 
0.350 
0.500 

0.33° 
0.660 
0.990 
1.320 
1.650 
2.310 
3-300 

0.014 
0.028 
0.042 
0.056 
0.070 
0.098 
0.140 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

0.901 

1.802 
2.703 
3.604 
4.505 
6.307 

0.049 
0.098 

0.147 
0.196 
0.245 

0-343 

0.423 
0.846 
1.269 
1.692 

2.115 
2.961 

0.014 
0.028 
0.042 
0.056 
0.070 
0.098 

1 66       ELEMENTARY    TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  III.  —DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Orchard  grass  hay  (cont'd). 

IO 

9.OIO 

0.490 

4.230 

0.140 

r>    A  +        v. 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.911 
1.822 
2-733 
3-644 
4-555 
6-377 
9.IIO 

0.048 
0.096 
0.144 
0.192 
0.240 
0.336 
0.480 

0.469 
0.938 
1.407 
1.876 
2-345 
3-283 
4.690 

O.OIO 
O.O2O 
0.030 

o  040 
0.050 
0.070 
o.  100 

T>                   V.           /                A  \ 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

IO 

0.834 
1.668 
2.502 
3.336 
4.170 
5-838 
8.340 

0.079 
0.158 
0.237 
0.316 

0-395 
0-553 
0.790 

0.401 
0.802 
1.203 
1.604 
2.005 
2.807 
4.OIO 

0.015 
0.030 
0.045 
0.060 

0.075 

0.105 
0.150 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.868 
1.736 
2.604 
3-472 
4-340 
6.076 
8.680 

0.028 
0.056. 
0.084 

O.I  12 
0.140 
0.196 
0.280 

0-434 
0.868 
1.302 
1.736 

2.1)0 
3.038 
4.340 

0.014 
0.028 
0.042 
0.056 
0.070 
0.098 
0.140 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

0.908 
1.816 
2.724 
3.632 
4-540 
6.356 
9.080 

0.012 
0.024 
0.036 
0.048 
0.060 
0.084 
0.120 

0.386 
0.772 
I.I58 
1-544 
1.930 
2.702 
3.860 

0.008 

0.016 
0.024 
0.032 
0.040 
0.056 
0.080 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.880 
1.760 
2.640 
3.520 
4.400 
6.160 
8.800 

0.027 
0.054 

O.oSl 
O.IOS 

0.135 
0.189 
0.270 

0.328 
0.656 
0.984 
I.3I2 
1.640 
2  296 
3.280 

O.OIO 
O.O2O 
0.030 
O.O^O 
0.050 
O.O7O 
O.IOO 

-Q 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

2.'  787 
3.716 

4-645 
6.503 
9.290 

0.006 
O.OI2 
O.OlS 
O.O24 
0.030 
O.O42 
O.O6O 

0.406 
0.812 

1.218 

1.624 
2.030 
2.842 
4.060 

0.004 
0.008 

0.012 

0.016 

0.020 

0.028 
0.040 

i 

0.904 

0.004 

0.363 

0.004 

TABLE)    OF    AMOUNTS    OF    DRY    MATTER 


i67 


TABLE  III.  —DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Wheat  straw  (continued  )  .  .  . 

2 

3 

4 
5 
7 

10 

1.  808 
2.712 
3.616 
4.520 
6.328 
9.040 

0.008 
O.OI2 

0.016 

0.020 

0.028 
0.040 

0.726 
1.089 
1.452 
1.815 
2.541 
3-630 

0.008 
0.012 

0.016 

O.O20 

0.028 
0.040 

Alfalfa  (  crrppn  \ 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.282 
0.564 
0.846 
I.I28 
I.4IO 

1-974 
2.820 

0.039 

0.078 
0.117 
0.156 

0.195 
0.273 
0.390 

O.I26 
0.252 
0.378 
0.504 
O.6^O 
0.882 
1.260 

0.005 

0.010 

0.015 

0.020 

0.025 
0.035 

0.050 

Canada  field  pea  (green)  .  .  . 

I 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.130 
0.260 
0.390 
0.520 
0.650 
0.910 
1.300 

0.023 
0.046 
0.069 
0.092 
0.115 

0.161 

0.230 

0.053 
O.I  06 

0.159 
O.2I2 
0.265 
0.371 
0.530 

0.002 

0.004 
0.006 
o.ooS 

0.010 

0.014 

0.020 

Cowpea  (green  )   

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.164 
0.328 

c.492 
0.656 
0.820 
1.148 
1.640 

0.018 
0.036 
0.054 
0.072 
0.090 
0.126 
0.180 

0.087 
0.174 
O.26l 
0.348 

0-435 
0.609 
0.870 

O.OO2 
O.OO4 
0.006 
0.008 
0.010 

0.014 

0.020 

Alfalfa  hay  

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.916 
1.832 
2.748 
3-664 
4.580 
6.412 
9  160 

0.106 

0.212 

0.318 
0.424 

0.53° 
0.742 

1.  060 

0.389 
0.778 
I.l67 
1.556 
1-945 
2.723 
3.890 

O.OO9 
O.OlS 
0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

Alsike  clover  hay  

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.903 
i.  806 
2.709 
3.612 

4.515 
6.321 
9.030 

0.084 

0.168 
0.252 
0.336 

0.420 

0.588 

0.840 

0.425 
0.850 

J.275 
I.7OO 
2.125 

2-975 
4.250 

0.015 
0.030 
0.045 
0.060 
0.075 
0.105 
0.150 

i 

2 

3 
4 

0.881 
1.762 
2.643 
3-524 

0.093 
0.186 
0.279 
0.372 

0.384 
0.768 
I.I52 
1.536 

0.012 
0.024 
0.036 
0.048 

1 68       ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  III. — DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued} 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Cowpea  vine  hay  (cont'd)  .  • 

5 

7 

10 

4.405 
6.167 
8.810 

0.465 
0.651 
0.930 

1.920 
2.688 
3.840 

0.060 
0.084 
O.I  2O 

i 

OQOd 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

1.  808 
2.712 
3.616 
4.520 
6.328 
9.040 

O.21O 

0.315 
O.42O 

0.525 

0-735 
1.050 

U*o4y 

0.698 
1.047 
1.396 
1.745 
2.443 

3-49° 

O.O24 
0.036 
0.048 
O.o6o 
0.084 
O.I  2O 

Lespedeza  (Japan  clover)  hay 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.897 
1.794 

2.691 

3.588 

4.485 
6.279 
8.970 

0.076 
0.152 
0.228 
0.304 
0.380 
0.532 
0.760 

0.422 
0.844 
1.266 
1.688 

2.  IIO 

2-954 
4.220 

0.018 
0.036 
0.054 

0.072 
0.090 
0.126 
0.180 

Peanut  vine  hay  (without 

i 

O  Q2A 

o  067 

o  422 

OQ-7Q 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

1.848 
2.772 
3.696 
4.620 
6.468 
9.240 

0.134 

O.2OI 
0.268 

0-335 
0.469 
0.670 

0.844 

1.266 

1.688 

2.  1  IO 

2-954 
4.220 

0.060 
0.090 
0.120 
0.150 
0.210 
0.300 

Sola  (soy)  bean  hay  

j 

o  887 

o  109 

o  402 

OQT  C 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

1.774  . 
2.661 

3.548 

4-435 
6.209 
8.870 

0.218 
0.327 
0.436 

0.545 
0.763 

1.090 

0.804 
1.  206 

1.  608 

2.010 

2.814 
4-O2O 

0.030 
0.045 
O.o6o 
0.075 
0.105 
0.150 

i 

o  887 

o  129 

O  ^7^ 

o  014 

2 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

1-774 
2.661 
3.548 
4-435 
6.209 
8.870 

0.258 
0.387 

0.516 
0.645 
0.903 

1.290 

^•O/D 
0.750 

I.I25 
1.500 

1.875 

2.625 
3.750 

0.028 
0.042 
0.056 
0.070 
0.098 
0.140 

Vetch  and  oats  (i-i  )  hay.  .  . 

i 

2 

3 
4 

5 

7 

0.850 
1.700 
2-550 
3.400 
4-250 
5-950 

0.083 
0.166 
0.249 
0.332 

0.4  '5 
0.581 

0342 
0.684 

1.026 

1.368 

1.710 

2.394 

O.OI4 
O.O28 
O.O42 
0.056 
O.O7O 
0.098 

TABLE)    OF    AMOUNTS    OF    DRY    MATTER 


169 


TABLE  III. — DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS.  —  (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
rates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Vetch  and  oats  (  i-i  )  hay 

10 

8.500 

0.830 

3  420 

0.140 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

0.209 
0.418 
0.627 
0.836 
1.045 
1.463 
2.090 

0.009 
o  018 
0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

0.113 
0.226 

0-339 
0.452 

0.565 
0.791 
I.I30 

0.007 
0.014 
O.O2I 

0.028 

0.035 
0.049 

0.070 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.207 
0.414 
O.62I 
0.828 
1.035 

1.449 
2.070 

0.015 
0.030 
0.045 
0.060 
0.075 
0.105 
0.150 

0.086 
0.172 
0.258 

0-344 
0.430 
0.602 
0.860 

0.009 
0.018 
0.027 
0.036 

0.045 
0.063 

0.090 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.258 
0.516 
0.774 
1.032 
1.290 
1.  806 
2.580 

0.027 
0.054 
O.oSl 
0.108 

0-135 
0.189 
0.270 

0.087 
0.174 
0.26l 
0.348 

0-435 
0.609 
0.870 

0.013 

0.026 

0.039 

0.052 
0.065 

0.091 

0.130 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.239 

0.478 

0.717 
0.956 

I-I95 
1-673 
2.390 

O.OO6 
O.OI2 
O.OlS 
O.O24 
0.030 
O.O42 
O.o6o 

0.149 
0.298 

0-447 
0.596 

0-745 
1.043 
1.490 

O.OO2 
O.OO4 
O.OO6 
O.OO8 
0.010 

0.014 

0.020 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

0.114 
0.228 
0.342 
0.456 
0.570 
0.798 
I.I40 

0.010 
0.020 
0.030 
0.040 
0.050 
O.O7O 
O.IOO 

0.081 
0.162 
0.243 
0.324 
0.405 
0.567 
0.810 

0  002 
0.004 
0.006 
O.OO8 
O.OIO 

o  014 

O.O2O 

Beet  (  mangel  wurzel  )  

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.091 
0.182 
0.273 
0.364 

0.455 
0.637 
0.910 

O.OII 
0.022 
0.033 
0.044 
0.055 
0.077 
O.I  10 

0.054 
0.108 
0.162 
0.216 
0.270 
0.378 
0.540 

O.OOI 
O.OO2 
0.003 
O.OO4 
0.005 
0.007 
O.OIO 

Potato  (  Irish  )  

i 

2 

0.2II 
O.422 

0.009 
0.018 

0.163 
0.326 

O.OOI 
0.002 

12 


ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  III. — DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4»  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS.— (Continued] 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Potato  (Irish)  (continued).. 

3 

4 
5 

7 

10 

°-633 
0.844 

i.°55 
1-477 

2.  IIO 

0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

0.489 
0.652 
0.815 
I.I4I 
1.630 

0.003 
0.004 
0.005 
0.007 
O.OIO 

Potato  (  sweet  ^ 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0.289 
0.578 
0.867 
I.I56 

1-445 
2.023 
2.890 

0.009 
0.018 
0.027 
0.036 
0.045 
0.063 
0.090 

O.222 
0.444 

0.666 
0.888 
i.  no 
1-554 

2.220 

0.003 
o  006 
0.009 

O.OI2 
0.015 
O.O2I 
0.030 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 

0.114 
0.228 
0.342 
0.456 
0.570 
0.798 
1.140 

O.OIO 
0.020 
0.030 
0.040 
0.050 
O.O7O 
O.I  00 

O.oSl 
O.l62 
0.243 
0.324 

0.405 
0.567 
0.810 

O.OO2 
O.OO4 
O.OO6 

o.ooS 

O.OIO 

0.014 

O.O2O 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7 

10 

0099 
0.198 
0.297 
0.396 

0.495 
0.693 
0.990 

0.039 

0.078 
0.117 
0.156 

0.195 
0.273 
0.390 

O.O4O 
O.oSo 
O.I  2O 

o.i  60 

O.2OO 
0.280 
O.4OO 

O.OII 
0.022 
0.033 

o  044 

0.055 
0.077 

O.I  10 

Skim  milk  (centrifugal)  

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.094 
0.188 
0.282 
0.376 

0.47° 
0.658 
0.940 

0.029 
0.058 

0.087 

o.  116 
0.145 
0.203 
0.290 

0.052 
O.IO4 
0.156 
0.208 
O.26O 
0.364 
0.520 

0.003 
0.006 
0.009 

0.012 
0.015 
0.021 
0.030 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
7 

10 

0.096 
0.192 
0.288 
0.384 
0.480 
0.672 
0.960 

0.031 
0.062 
0.093 
0.124 

o.i55 
0.217 
0.310 

0.047 
0.094 
O.I4I 

o.i  88 

0.235 
0.329 
0.470 

O.OOS 

0.016 
0.024 
0.032 

0.040 

0.056 
0.080 

Whey  

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

0.062 
0.124 
0.186 
0.248 
0.310 

0.006 

0.012 
O.OlS 
O.O24 
0.030 

0.047 
0.094 
0.141 
0.188 
0.235 

O.OOI 
O.OO2 

0.003 
0.004 
0.005 

TABLE    OF    AMOUNTS    OF    DRY    MATTER 

TABLE  III.— DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  7  AND  10  POUNDS  OF  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued} 


Feed 

Weight 
pounds 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

7 

0-434 

0.042 

0.329 

0.007 

10 

O.62O 

0.060 

0.470 

O.OIO 

i 

0-095 

O.OlS 

0.042 

0.004 

2 

0.190 

0.036 

0.084 

0.008 

3 

0.285 

0.054 

0.126 

0.012 

4 

0380 

0.072 

0.168 

o  016 

5 

0-475 

0.090 

O.21O 

O.O2O 

7 

0.665 

O.I26 

0.294 

O.O28 

10 

0.950 

O.lSo 

O.42O 

O.O4O 

"Rflne 

i 

0.155 

0.015 

O.oSl 

O.OO2 

2 

0.310 

0.030 

0.162 

O.OO4 

3 

0.465 

0.045 

0.243 

O.OO6 

4 

O.62O 

0.060 

0.324 

O.OOS 

5 

0-775 

0.075 

0.405 

O.OIO 

7 

1.085 

0.105 

0.567 

0.014 

10 

1-550 

0.150 

O.SlO 

0.020 

for  4  and  5  Ibs.  or  multiply  the  amounts  for  3  Ibs.,  by  3.  If  ^ 
Ib.  is  needed,  take  i/io  of  5  Ibs.  or  divide  the  amounts  for  i  lb., 
by  2.  For  50,  100,  200,  300  Ibs.,  etc.,  a  simple  multiplication 
will  give  the  amounts  required. 

A  Ration  Computed  by  Using  Table  III.— Let  us  figure  a  ration 
by  using  this  table.  Supposing  we  have  some  cattle  we  wish  to 
fatten  for  the  market.  The  standard,  Table  II,  for  the  pre- 
liminary period  for  fattening  cattle  of  1,000  Ibs:  live  weight  is : 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohydrates 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

27 

2-5 

16.1 

1:6.4 

If  corn  and  cob  meal,  alfalfa  hay  and  cotton-seed  meal  should 
be  available,  we  could  try  the  following  amounts  which  are 
given  in  Table  III. 


2      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

jo  Ibs   corn  and  cob  meal  

c  Sic; 

i  Ib     cotton-seed  meal  

16'  /4U 

ioyu 

o-°oo 

u>  Mo 

W«,J/* 

2-J      TAR 

•O1  14° 

2?    T/l8 

2  4O2 

T  •?      21^ 

U-O4/ 

Nutritire 
ratio 

T  -C     C 

27 

1O"'OO 

16  i 

1  »O»O 

*/• 

*«O 

Our  ration  is  too  low  in  carbohydrates  to  be  satisfactory. 
Corn  and  cob  meal  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  carbohydrates 
than  the  other  feeds  included  in  this  ration.  Therefore  we  will 
use  15  Ibs  of  corn  and  cob  meal.  The  protein  in  our  trial 
ration  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  standard  and  by  using  15 
Ibs.  of  corn  and  cob  meal  the  protein  will  be  too  high.  Let 
us  try  reducing  the  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  to  14  Ibs.  and  compare 
our  ration  to  the  standard. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

1  2  7^^ 

0  660 

Q  OOO 

O  A.T.tZ 

12  824 

T   A&A 

5/l/lfi 

1.404 

.440 

U-O/^ 

26  477 

2  ci6 

M6i  ^ 

0  68l 

26  477 

2  516 

16  15 

Nutritive 
ratio 

I  '6  4 

27 

2  e: 

16  i 

i  *6  4 

This  ration  is  very  close  to  the  standard. 

Suggestion : — Compute  a  ration  for  farm  work  horses  aver- 
aging 1,200  Ibs.,  doing  heavy  farm  work,  from  oats,  linseed 
meal,  corn  and  cob  meal  and  timothy  hay.  How  much  of  each 
concentrate  would  be  required  to  last  15  horses  of  this  weight 
for  a  month? 


SECTION  XXVII. 


STANDARDS  FOE  MUCH  COWS. 

Wolff's  standard  for  milch  cows,  which  has  been  generally 
used,  has  been  found  to  be  unsatisfactory  for  American  feeders. 
Many  investigations  have  been  conducted  to  determine  the  re- 
quirements for  milch  cows  in  this  country. 

Adjust  the  Ration  to  the  Cow's  Needs. — Haecker  in  Minnesota 
Bui.  79,  says:  "It  has  long  since  been  recognized  that  because 
of  the  difference  in  composition  of  the  various  kinds  of  feed 
stuffs  no  single  standard  of  composition  for  all  feeds  would  be 
practical,  and  yet,  while  there  is  as  great  a  difference  in  the 
composition  of  milks  as  there  is  in  feed  stuffs,  there  has  been  no 
adjustment  of  the  nutrients  in  the  ration  to  the  quantity  and 
character  of  the  solids  contained  in  the  milk  yielded,  though 
such  an  adjustment  is  simple  and  practicable.  If  in  formulating 
a  ration  it  is  deemed  necessary  in  economic  milk  production,  to 
take  note  of  the  fact  that  one  feed  stuff  contains  12  per  cent, 
protein  and  another  20  per  cent.,  is  it  not  equally  important  in 
our  attempt  to  adjust  the  ration  to  the  needs  of  the  cow  in  milk 
production  to  also  take  into  account  the  fact  that  one  cow  may 
give  milk  containing  3  per  cent,  fat  while  that  of  another  may 
contain  twice  as  much?  It  would  seem  quite  as  consistent  to 
feed  an  animal  food  regardless  of  its  composition  as  to  feed  an 
assumed  balanced  ration  regardless  of  the  composition  of  the 
product  which  is  to  be  elaborated  from  the  nutrients  in  the  food. 

"Great  stress  has  been  placed  upon  the  fact  that  the  nutrients 
in  milk  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  approximately  one  to  five,  and 
that  therefore  the  ration  for  a  milch  cow  should  have  a  similar 
nutritive  ratio;  apparently  overlooking  the  fact  that  only  50  per 
cent,  of  the  ration  is  used  in  milk  production  and  the  balance 
for  maintenance  of  body.  If  note  is  taken  of  the  fact  that 
about  half  the  ration  is  used  for  maintenance  and  that  the  main- 
tenance ration  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  one  to  ten,  it  becomes 
apparent  that  for  the  production  of  milk  of  average  quality  by 
an  animal  of  average  milk  producing  powers  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  the  ration  should  be  approximately  1 :  7.5.  But  since  animals 


174      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

vary  in  productive  powers,  and  since  this  variation  is  not  in 
proportion  to  weight  of  body,  it  follows  that  if  rations  are  ad- 
justed to  the  actual  requirements  of  animals  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  the  rations  will  also  vary." 

A  New  World  Record. 

"It  remained  for  the  Missouri  College  of  Agriculture  at  Colum- 
bia, Missouri,  to  raise  and  develop  the  Champion  Dairy  Cow  of 
all  the  world.  Missouri  Chief  Josephine,  a  Holstein-Friesian  cow 


Fig.  12.— Missouri  Chief  Josephine. 
(Courtesy  Missouri  Experiment  Station.) 

finished  her  six  months  test  on  July  i8th,  producing  17,008.8 
pounds,  an  average  of  93.4  pounds  of  milk  daily  for  182  days. 
This  is  equivalent  to  46.7  quarts,  or  n.6  gallons  every  day. 
Her  highest  record  for  one  day  was  110.2  pounds.  This  record 
is  the  more  remarkable  because  no  special  preparation  had  been 
made  for  this  test  and  Josephine  has  done  her  full  duty  in  the 
regular  dairy  herd  of  the  University,  having  had  five  calves  in 
five  and  one-half  years. 


STANDARDS   FOR    MILCH    COWS  175 

Not  only  has  this  record  smashed  all  previous  worlds  records 
for  milk  production,  but  the  per  cent,  of  butter  fat  is  increasing 
daily,  so  that,  barring  accidents  this  cow  will  undoubtedly  pro- 
duce more  butter  during  a  period  of  twelve  months  than  any  other 
cow  that  has  ever  been  tested  in  the  world. 

This  cow  is  but  one  of  a  number  of  remarkable  cows  owned 
by  the  University  of  Missouri  and  maintained  solely  for  the  in- 
struction of  its  students  in  Agriculture  and  for  investigational 
purposes.  Only  twenty  Jersey  cows  in  the  history  of  the  world 
have  produced  more  than  700  pounds  of  butter  in  one  year.  Five 
of  these  cows,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the  totail  number  are  owned  and 
were  bred  by  this  Missouri  institution.  The  College  owns  more 
than  300  pure  bred  and  registered  animals,  belonging  to  17 
distinct  breeds. 

Josephine's  record  exceeds  the  present  world's  record  for  six 
months  by  1,458  pounds." 


The  table  on  page  176  of  standards  for  milch  cows  has  been 
compiled  from  Haecker's  work,  giving  the  requirements  for 
cows  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  producing  the  stated  quantities  of  milk 
of  stated  butter  fat. 

Maintenance  and  Milk  Production  Requirements. — The  stand- 
ards in  the  table  include  the  requirements  for  maintenance  and 
milk  production  and  are  based  on  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight.  In- 
vestigations have  demonstrated  that  the  maintenance  per  100 
Ibs.  live  weight,  namely,  0.07  of  a  pound  of  digestible  protein, 
0.7  of  a  pound  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  o.oi  of  a  pound 
of  digestible  fat,  which  is  given  at  the  head  of  the  preceding 
table,  are  ample  for  maintaining  the  average  cow. 

To  compute  the  maintenance  requirements  for  any  live  weight, 
say  600,  700  or  800  Ibs.,  simply  multiply  the  maintenance  for  100 
Ibs.  by  6,  7  or  8  as  the  case  may  be.  For  milk  production  re- 
quirements, divide  the  production  of  milk  by  10  and  multiply; 
the  standard  for  each  additional  10  Ibs.  by  this  result.  The 
standard  required  would  be  the  sum  of  the  maintenance  and 
milk  production  requirements. 


176      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


Per  cent, 
butter 
fat 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Mainte 
live  \ 
10  poui 
10 
10 
15 
15 
15 

20 
22 
2O 
25 
25 

35 
30 
30 
30 
35 
35 
40 
40 
40 
50 

For  eac 
< 

t 

nanc 
veigl 
ids  o 

:had 

« 

< 

c  per  loo  Ibs. 
it  .  .          

3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
5 

0.07 
.10 

•17 
.24 

•30 
405 
•51 
•50 
•64 
•78 
.70 

.875 
2.05 
1.90 
2.  II 
2.32 
2.10 
2-345 

2-59 

2.30 
2.58 

2.86 
0.40 

0.47 

o.54 

0.7 
8.8l 
9.14 
9.48 

9.715 
10.21 
10.72 
10  62 
11.28 
11.96 
H.525 
12.35 
13.20 

12.43 
I3-42 
14.44 

13-335 
14.49 

15.69 
14.24 
15-56 
16.92 

1.81 
2.14 
2.48 

0.01 
0.24 
0.26 
0.28 
0.31 
o-34 
037 
0.38 
0.42 
0.46 

045 
0.50 

0-55 
0.52 
0.58 
0.64 

o-59 
0.66 

0-73 
0.66 
0.74 
0.82 
0.14 
0.16 
0.18 

:8.5 
:8-3 
:8.2 
:8.o 
7.8 
:7.6 
:7.6 
:?-5 
:7-3 
17.4 
17.2 
17.0 
17.2 
-.7.0 
:6.8 
7.0 
:6.8 

:6-7 
:6.8 

:6.7 
:6.6 

f  mi 

diti 
i 

Ik- 





>nal  10  Ibs.  .  . 

^     <  < 

Use  of  the  Table.  —  Let  us  make  this  clearer  by  computing  the 
standard  for  a  cow  weighing  850  Ibs.  producing  23  Ibs.  of  milk 
daily,  testing  5  per  cent,  butter  fat. 

Since  850  is  8.5  X  100,  we  must  multiply  our  maintenance 
(0.07  Ib.  protein;  0.7  Ib.  carbohydrates  and  o.oi  fat)  by  8.5. 

0.07  X  8.5  =  0.595  Ib.    of  protein  |    Maintenance  require- 

o-7    X  8.5  =  5.950  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates       [•    mentfora  cow  weigh- 
o.oi  X  ,8-5  =  0.085  Ib.    of  fat  )    ing  850  Ibs. 

Since  our  cow  is  producing  23  Ibs.  of  milk,  we  divide  23  by  10 
which  gives  us  2.3.  Multiply  the  standard  for  each  additional 
10  Ibs.  of  5  per  cent,  butter  fat  milk  (0.54  Ib.  protein,  2.48  Ibs., 
carbohydrates  and  0.18  Ib.  fat)  by  2.3  which  gives  us  the  milk 
production  requirement. 


0.54 

lit 


5  p     ce,,t. 


STANDARDS   FOR    MII<CH    COWS 


177 


The  sum  of  the  maintenance  and  the  milk  production  require- 
ments is  the  amount  required. 


for 
maintenance 

for  milk 
production 

T  180 

Standard 
required 

'111 

Pounds  of  fat  .  . 

•95°      ~l 
0.08^       -I 

.704      — 

O  AT/1       — 

11.654 
o  /mo 

As  previously  stated  the  standards  in  the  table  are  on  the 
basis  of  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight.  Therefore  to  compute  the  stand- 
ard for  a  cow  of  this  weight  (1,000  Ibs.)  it  is  not  necessary  to 
figure  the  maintenance  and  milk  production  requirements,  as 
this  work  has  already  been  done  and  is  included  in  the  table. 

A  Ration. — The  following  ration  for  a  cow  weighing  1,000 
Ibs.  producing  25  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  testing  4  per  cent,  butter  fat, 
illustrates  how  feed  stuffs  may  be  compounded  to  meet  the 
standards  as  laid  down  in  this  table. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 
pounds 

2  Ibs.  linseed  meal  (new  process)  .  .  .  . 

1.  80 

5OQ 

0.56 
o  26 

080 

i  60 

O.o6 

t%Jy 

2   1O 

o*uu 

U.I/ 
Q      T  7 

^.,30 
8  40 

016 

<->•  15 

o  28 

6  Ibs   red  top  hay  

5  AH 

O  2Q 

2  81 

Ration 

4/ 

**.4*f 

T   S7 

l.O/ 
I   875 

12.51 

12  "i^ 

O  ^O 

i-t-JJ 

The  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  a  little  high  but  the  ration 
approximates  the  standard  close  enough  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses. 

A  Narrow  Nutritive  Ratio  is  Sometimes  Economical. — Dairy- 
men have  learned  by  practical  experience  that  Haecker's  stand- 
ards are  too  wide  (that  is  there  is  too  high  a  proportion  of 
carbohydrates  and  fat  to  protein)  for  the  most  economical  pro- 
duction of  milk  where  protein  is  cheap  and  carbohydrates  rela- 
tively expensive.  In  all  probability  Haecker's  table  is  suitable 
for  the  Northwest  and  other  sections  where  protein  is  expen- 
sive and  carbohydrates  comparatively  cheap.  Prof.  E.  L.  Jor- 


178      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND   FEEDING 

dan  of  the  Louisiana  State  University  and  the  writer  adapted  the 
following  table  from  Haecker's  work  to  meet  the  demands  of 
feeders  who  wish  to  employ  narrow  rations  for  milch  cows. 


Per  cent, 
butter 
fat 

Protein 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Fat 

pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

10  poui 

10 

15 
15 

20 
20 
25 
25 
30 
30 

35 
35 
40 
40 

For  ea< 
« 

ids  o 

:had 
i       < 

f  mi 

ditic 
< 

Ik 

4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 

•3 
•4 
.6 

•75 
•9 

2.1 
2.2 
2-45 
2-5 
2.8 
2.8 

3-15 
3.1 

3-5 
0.60 
0.70 

9.14 
9.48 
IO.2I 
IO.72 
11.28 
11.96 

12-35 
13.20 
I3-42 
14.44 
1449 
15.68 
I5-56 
16.92 
2.14 
2.48 

0.26 

0.28 
0-34 
o-37 
0.42 
0.46 
0.50 

°-55 
0.58 
0.64 
0.66 

0-73 
0.74 
0.82 
o.  16 
0.18 

:7-5 

7.2 
:6.9 
:6.6 
:6.4 
:6.2 
:6.i 
'5-9 
-5-9 
:5-7 
=5-7 
5.5 
15-6 

3-4 

>nal  10  Ibs.  .  . 

i         <  t     « 

Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  says :  "At  the 
prices  of  feeding  stuffs  in  the  North  Central  States  it  will  not,  as 
a  general  rule,  pay  to  feed  a  narrower  ratio  to  dairy  cows  than 
i  :  6.0  and  we  find  that  the  cows  in  our  University  herd  fed 
according  to  our  best  judgment  receive  on  the  average  rations 
with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  i  :  6.5  to  7.0.  The  heavier  pro- 
ducers in  the  herd  naturally  receive  more  grain  feed  than  the  low 
producers  and  their  rations,  therefore,  have  a  narrower  nutritive 
ratio,  but  it  is  very  rarely  that  we  find  it  necessary  to  go  below 
i  :  6.0.  The  starchy  feeds  are  cheaper  than  the  protein  feeds 
with  us  and  unless  the  cow  has  an  exceptional  productive  capaci- 
ty a  medium  or  somewhat  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  more  economical 
than  a  narrow  one." 

Suggestion :  A  gallon  of  milk  weighs  8.6  Ibs.  Compute 
two  rations  for  a  cow  weighing  825  Ibs.  producing  2^2  gallons 
of  milk  a  day,  testing  4  per  cent,  butter  fat,  according  to  the 
standards  in  the  two  tables  in  this  section,  from  mixed  hay, 
corn  meal,  linseed  meal  and  wheat  bran. 


SECTION  XXVIII. 


COMPUTATION  OF  RATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  ENERGY  VALUES. 

The  tables  given  in  the  foregoing  pages  on  composition,  di- 
gestible nutrients  and  standards  are  those  commonly  used  in 
compounding  rations.  Armsby  of  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment 
Station  and  G.  Kuhn  and  Kellner  of  the  Mockern  Experiment 
Station  of  Germany  have  been  conducting  investigations  as  to 
the  protein  and  energy  values  of  feeds,  and  the  requirements 
of  animals,  by  means  of  the  respiration  apparatus. 

The  following  table  of  digestible  protein  and  energy  values 
is  taken  from  Farmers'  Bui.  346.  The  energy  value  represents 
the  production  value,  or  the  value  of  the  feed  stuffs  cited  for 
the  production  of  gain  in  fattening  animals.  The  protein  rep- 
resents what  is  available  for  repair  material. 


TABLE  IV.— DRY  MATTER,  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  AND  ENERGY 
VALUES  PER  100  POUNDS.  l 


Feeding  stuff 

Total  dry 
matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

GREEN  FODDER  AND  SILAGE 
Alfalfa  

08    o 

Clover     crimson  . 

•5° 

12  -45 

Clover     red  ..        .        . 

ly.  i 

•J9 

11.30 

Corn  fodder-  green  

»y«* 

^u.  / 

2r    A 

12.44 

ifi  cf\ 

Hungarian  grass  

^O'u 

28  Q 

10.50 

Rape  

IA  1 

*-o6 

2  16 

14.70 

Rye  

A4  o 
2-1    A 

•43 

TT    f\1 

Timothy  

•*3'4 

•28  A 

HAY  AND  DRY  COARSE  FODDERS 

Clover  hay     red  «              ••« 

8/1   7 

•yo 

34-41 

Qorn  forage   field  cured  

c7  Q 

.41 

34-74 

O/'° 
en   c 

*'LJ 
I  80 

3°-53 

8q1 

8  S7 

20-53 

°V-  6 

°-o/ 

4^./o 

92-3 
84  o 

.00 

44  -°3 

88  7 

•59 

7  68 

3^-97 

18  f\c 

00.  / 

86  8 

3°  05 

•°5 

33-5^ 

Farmers'  Bui.  346. 


l8o      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  IV.— DRY  MATTER,  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  AND  ENERGY 
VALUES  PER  100  POUNDS.— (Continued] 


Feeding  stuff 

Total  dry 
matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

STRAWS 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

II.4 
9-1 

21.  1 
II.4 

94 

89.1 
89.1 
84.9 
89  o 

89.5 
88.4 

89.5 
92  o 

24-3 
882 
91.8 

93-o 
93  2 
91.9 
91.8 

9°-5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 

10.  1 

93-6- 
88  i 
84.0 

1.09 
0.63 
0-37 

0.37 
0.14 

o-45 
0.88 

0.22 

8-37 
6.79 

4-53 
8.36 
16.77 

8.12 

8.90 

19.04 
3-8i 
22.34 

35-15 

21.93 
10.38 

19-95 
21.56 

33-09 
27-54 
29  26 
12.36 

n-35 
0.63 
6.80 

IO.2I 
12.79 

21.21 

20.87 
16.56 

7.82 

4  62 
18.05 
8.00 
5-74 

80.75 
88.84 
72.05 
66.27 

71-75 
81.72 
82.63 

60.  01 
14.82 
75-92 
84.20 

79-23 
60.93 

79-32 
8880 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 

46.33 
56.65 
7-77 
60.  10 
48.23 
77.65 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 
Carrots  

Potatoes 

GRAINS 

Oorn 

Oats 

"D  vfk 

Kye  

Whpafr 

BY-PRODUCTS 

Distillers'  grains  —  dried 

The  Feed  Requirements  given  in  Table  V  may  not  be  abso- 
lutely accurate  but  they  are  perhaps  as  near  to  the  true  re- 
quirements as  those  we  are  accustomed  to  using.  The  intelli- 
gent feeder  can  compound  rations  from  this  table  that  will  meet 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS 


181 


the  requirements  of  his  animals.  The  requirements  for  swine 
have  not  been  worked  out.  The  per  cent,  of  digestible  protein, 
being  true  protein  (crude  protein  minus  the  amides)  will  be 
smaller  in  amount  than  the  digestible  protein  of  the  standards 
given  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  V.— FEED  REQUIREMENTS1 


Age 
months 

Live 
weight 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein4 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

I  5O 

O  15 

I  7O 



250 
500 

750 
IOOO 

1250 
1500 

O.2O 
0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.6o 
0.65 

2.40 
3-80 

4-95 
o.oo 
7.00 
7.90 

« 

275 

.  IO 

c  o 

6 

12 

18 
24 
30 

425 
650 
850 
IOOO 
IIOO 

•3° 
•65 
.70 

•75 
•65 

6.0 
7.0 

7-5 
8.0 
8.0 

ICQ 

o  ^o 

2  O 



250 
500 
750 
IOOO 

0.40 
0.60 
0.80 

1.  00 

2.8 

4-4 
5-8 
7-0 
8T  _ 

1250 

'*5 

1500 

1.30 

9.2 



IOOO 

I.O 

9  8 

IOOO 

I  A. 

12  A 

IOOO 

2  O 

16  o 

Sheep  maintenance*  •••  

20 

O  O^ 

o  ^o 



40 

60 

0.05 

0-54 



80 

IOO 

1  20 
140 

0.09 
O.IO 
O.  II 

0.13 

•7  L 
0.87 
.00 
•13 
.25 

Growing  sheep*  *  • 

5 

9 

12 

15 

18 

/u 

90 

no 

130 
145 

0.25 
0.23 
0.23 

O.22 

•3° 
.40 
.40 
•50 
.60 

1  Farmers'  Bui.  346. 

2  Including  the  maintenance  requirements. 
"  After  Kellner. 

4  True  protein,  amides  not  included. 


l82      EXEMKNTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  V '.—(Continued.) 
ESTIMATED  ENERGY  VALUE  OF  i  POUND  OF  GAIN  IN  WEIGHT 


Age 
months 


lyive 
weight 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 


Energy 
value 

therms 


Growing  cattle  and  growing  sheep 


6 

12 

18 
24 

30 


1.50 
1-75 

2.00 
2.50 

2-75 
3.00 


Fattening  cattle  i  Ib.  gain  live  weight 


3-5 


One  Ib.  milk  production  requirement 


0.05 


0-3 


How  to  Compute  the  Requirement. — Let  us  compute  a  ration 
for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  875  Ibs.,  producing  25  Ibs.  of  milk 
daily. 

Referring  to  Table  V  we  find  the  maintenance  requirements 
for  cows  weighing  750  Ibs.  and  1,000  Ibs.  are: 

750  Ib.  cow  i  ,000  Ib.  cow 

Digestible  protein,  pounds 0.40  0.50 

Energy,  therms 4.95  6.00 

The  difference  between  875  and  1,000  is  the  same  as  the  dif- 
ference between  750  and  875.  Therefore  the  maintenance  re- 
quirement for  a  cow  weighing  875  Ibs.  is: 

Digestible  protein 0.45    pound 

Energy 5-475  therms 

For  the  production  of  25  Ibs.  of  milk  we  would  need  accord- 
ing to  Table  V: 

Digestible  protein (25  X  0.05)  =  1.25  pounds 

Energy (25  X  0.3   )  =  7-5°  therms 

The  total  requirement  then  is: 

Digestible  Energy 

protein  value 

pounds  therms 

Maintenance 0.45  5-475 

Milk  production 1.25  7.500 

Total  requirement =1.70  12.975 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS 


How  to  Compute  the  Ration. — Let  us  suppose  cotton-seed  meal, 
corn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  oat  hay  and  rye  straw  are  avail- 
able. Our  previous  study  has  taught  us  that  we  should  en- 
deavor to  supply  12  to  14  pounds  of  dry  matter  from  roughage, 
as  roughage  generally  is  our  cheapest  source  of  feed.  We  have 
been  taught  that  the  amount  of  roughage  should  be  limited  be- 
cause an  animal  can  only  properly  consume  a  certain  amount  of 
roughage.  Rye  straw  and  oat  hay  are  the  feeds  which  are 
available  as  roughage. 

In  Table  IV  we  find  that  100  Ibs.  of  rye  straw  and  oat  hay 
contain : 


Dry 
matter 
pounds 


Rye  straw 92.9 

Oat  hay 84.0 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

0.63 
2-59 


Energy 
value 
therms 

20.87 
36.97 


Let  us  see  what  8  Ibs.  of  rye  straw  will  furnish: 

92.9    X  °-°8  =  7.432  pounds  dry  matter 
0.63  X  0.08  =  0.0504  pound  digestible  protein 
20.87  X  °-o8  =  1.6696  therms  of  energy  value 

Eight  pounds  of  rye  straw  furnish  7.432  Ibs.  of  dry  matter.  By 
a  simple  calculation  we  find  that  6  Ibs.  of  oat  hay  will  furnish 
the  remaining  dry  matter  required  from  roughage.  The  amounts 
for  oat  hay  are  arrived  at  in  the  same  way  as  for  rye  straw. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

7-432 
5.040 

0.0504 
0.1554 

0.2058 

1.6696 
2.2182 

12.472 

3-8878 

We  must  supply  the  difference  between  what  we  have  figured 
for  roughage  and  the  requirement  (1.7  Ibs.  digestible  protein 
and  12.975  therms  of  energy  value)  with  the  available  concen- 
trates (cotton-seed  meal,  corn  meal  and  wheat  middlings). 


184      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Addition  of  Concentrates. — Let  us  try  3  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal, 
3  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  and  2  Ibs.  of  wheat  middlings  and  add  these 
to  our  roughage.  The  amounts  for  the  concentrates  are  cal- 
culated in  a  similar  manner  from  Table  IV  as  illustrated  for 
rye  straw. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 

value 
therms 

7.432 
5  040 
2-754 
2.673 
i.  680 

0.0504 
o  1554 

I  0545 
0.2037 
0.2558 

1.6696 
2.2182 
2.5260 
2.6652 
1.5530 

10.6320 
12-975 

19-579 

1.7198 
1.70 

Our  ration  meets  the  protein  requirement  but  it  is  deficient 
in  therms  of  energy  value. 

Balancing  the  Ration. — In  order  to  bring  the  energy  value  to 
the  requirement  we  must  add  some  corn  meal,  as  this  feed  stuff 
contains  a'  relatively  larger  proportion  of  therms  than  the  other 
available  concentrates.  We  must  reduce  the  quantity  of  cot- 
ton-seed meal  because  an  addition  of  corn  meal  will  make  the 
protein  too  high.  We  will  try  6  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  and  2  Ibs. 
of  cotton-seed  meal  and  compare  the  ration  to  the  requirement. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

7A12 

OQCQA 

I  6696 

5OAO 

OI  ^^A 

2  2182 

i  8^6 

o  7030 

I  6840 

5^4.6 

O  AO7A. 

5T.T.QA 

•O4" 

I  680 

O  2^8 

I    ^^O 

Ration 

21   ^^J. 

I   ^72O 

12  A^^2 

I   7O 

12  Q7^ 

The  ration  is  slightly  deficient  in  digestible  protein  and  energy 
value.     Let  us  add  i  Ib.  of  wheat  middlings  to  the  ration. 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

7  A12 

I  6696 

/J      -5TQ-7 

.040 
T    876 

°'I554 

T    68/tO 

•o4° 

u.4»j/4 

•O,5U4 

U>O°O/ 

^•o-tyo 

•^.1/4 

i  .  uyyy 
T   7O 

i6-^6L/ 

4*«3»/0 

The  ration  as  it  now  stands  approximates  the  requirement,  al- 
though  the   energy   value   is   a   little   high ;   the   ration   is   close 


Fig.  13  —A  typical  roadster— after  Good. 

enough  when  we  consider  that  all  standards  are  not  absolutely 
correct  but  merely  guides  for  the  intelligent  feeder. 

A  Ration  for  a  Horse. — It  is  a  simple  matter  to  figure  a  ration 
for  a  horse  by  the  use  of  energy  values.     A  ration  for  a  horse 
13 


1 86      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


doing  medium  work,  weighing  1,200  Ibs.  computed  from  timothy 
hay,  oats,  corn  and  wheat  bran  would  be  calculated  as  follows. 
Table  V  gives  maintenance  and  work  requirement  for  a  horse 
doing  medium  work  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  as, 

Digestible  protein 1.4  pounds 

Energy  value 12.4  therms 

As  our  horse  weighs  1,200  Ibs.  we  must  increase  this  require- 
ment one-fifth,  since  200  is  one-fifth  of  1,000. 


ve  weight 
pounds 

1,000 
200 


Digestible  protein 
pounds 

1.4 

0.28 

1.68 


Energy  value 
therms 

12.4 
2.48 

14.88 


Requirement 1,200 

We  must  aim  to  allow  a  limited  amount  of  roughage  to  a 
horse  because  this  class  of  animal  is  not  capable  of  consuming 
large  amounts  of  this  kind  of  feed  stuff.  The  following  ration 
approximates  the  requirement. 


Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Energy 
value 
therms 

10.416 
6.230 
3-564 
4-8455 

0.2460 
0.5852 
0.2716 
0.56155 

4.0272 
4.6389 
3.5536 
2.65265 

25.0555 

1.66435 

1.68 

14.87235 
14.88 

Rations  for  Fattening  Cattle. — In  computing  rations  for  fatten- 
ing cattle  the  maintenance  requirement  should  be  added  to  the 
average  gain  in  live  weight  per  day.  Example:  A  farmer  has 
a  bunch  of  cattle  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  which  he  wishes  to  fatten 
for  the  market.  These  cattle  should  make  an  average  gain  of 
2  Ibs.  a  day  and  weigh  about  1,500  Ibs.  when  ready  for  sale. 

According  to  Table  V,  I  pound  gain  in  live  weight  for  fattening 
cattle  requires  3.5  therms  of  energy  value.  The  cattle  gain  2  Ibs. 
a  day,  hence  (2  X  3-5)  =  7  therms,  or  the  requirement  of  energy 
value.  The  maintenance  should  be  calculated  on  the  average  live 
weight  of  the  cattle  for  the  period,  namely  1,250  Ibs. 


COMPUTATION    OF    RATIONS  l/ 

Digestible     Energy 
protein          value 
pounds         therms 

Maintenance  for  1,250  pounds 0.60  7.00 

Fattening  requirement  for  2  pounds,  gain —  7.00 

Total  requirement 0.60          14.00 

The  digestible  protein  requirement  is  not  given  for  i  pound 
gain  live  weight,  so  that  in  computing  a  ration  of  this  nature  it 
will  be  necessary  to  balance  the  energy  value.  The  digestible 
protein  will  then  be  much  higher  than  is  included  in  the  require- 
ment, but  if  the  energy  value  is  balanced  by  the  employment  of 
the  proper  amounts  of  roughage  and  concentrates  the  digestible 
protein  will  be  near  enough  for  good  results. 

Suggestion :  Require  the  class  to  compute  a  ration  for  a  flock 
of  sheep  averaging  135  Ibs.  live  weight  and  16  months  of  age, 
from  potatoes,  gluten  feed,  corn,  clover  hay  and  oat  straw,  accord- 
ing to  energy  values. 


SECTION  XXIX. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS. 

Requirements. — The  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  should  supply  the 
proper  amounts  of  nutrients  for  good  milk  production  and  for 
the  needs  of  the  animal  body.  It  should  be  palatable  and  adapt- 
able. The  ration  should  be  as  cheap  as  possible  and  should  not 
contain  enough  feed  to  disturb  the  digestive  equilibrium  of  the 
animal. 

Amount  of  Feed. — As  already  stated  the  amount  of  nutrients 
should  be  controlled  by  the  quantity  of  milk  produced,  and  its 
butter  fat  content.  A  cow  producing  15  Ibs.  of  milk  should  not 
receive  as  much  digestible  feed  as  one  giving  25  Ibs.  of  milk,  and 
of  two  cows  producing  equal  quantities  of  milk,  the  one  produc- 
ing the  higher  fat  content  should  receive  the  more  non-nitrogen- 
ous food. 

The  dairy  cow  when  producing  a  good  flow  of  milk  is  a  hard 
working  animal.  Hence  the  larger  the  yield  of  milk  the  greater 
should  be  the  proportion  of  concentrates  to  roughage.  A  dry 
cow  is  a  lightly  worked  animal  and  a  suitable  ration  may  con- 
sist of  much  less  grain  and  more  roughage  than  for  a  cow  in 
milk.  A  pregnant  cow  needs  nitrogenous  food  to  support  the 
calf  in  utero  and  a  suitable  ration  may  be  furnished  with  some 
well  cured  leguminous  hay  and  carbohydrate  roughage  as  corn 
stover,  good  grass  hay,  or  straw.  When  the  roughage  is  inferior, 
grain  should  be  supplied  in  small  amounts.  A  ration  for  a  dairy 
cow  should  be  made  up  of  more  than  two  feeds  as  an  animal 
does  better  and  enjoys  variety  just  as  people  do. 

Cows  usually  prefer  their  feed  in  a  dry  condition  and  by  supply- 
ing the  feed  in  this  way,  the  mangers  are  easily  kept  clean.  The 
general  practice  is  to  feed  dairy  cows  in  the  morning  and  late 
afternoon,  with  a  little  roughage,  such  as  hay,  at  noon  time.  The 
cows  should  be  fed  and  milked  regularly.  With  some  cows 
(usually  fresh  young  cows)  uniformity  in  the  milking  time  is 
necessary  for  the  best  returns. 

Conditions  Which  Influence  the  Ration. — The  size  of  the  cow. 
the  milk  produced  and  the  market  price  of  the  milk  will  necessari- 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  189 

ly  influence  the  amount  of  grain  that  should  be  fed  per  day.  For 
cows  weighing  800  Ibs.  producing  20  to  22  Ibs.  of  milk  testing  5 
per  cent  fat,  7  to  8  Ibs.  of  grain  should  suffice.  When  the  price 
of  grain  is  high  it  is  sometimes  economical  to  reduce  the  grain 
portion  of  the  ration  to  5  to  6  Ibs.  When  the  grain  is  reduced 
the  feeds  grown  on  the  farm  may  be  fed  to  advantage.  Cows 
weighing  1,100  to  1,200  Ibs.  should  receive  sometimes  as  high 
as  ii  to  12  Ibs.  of  grain,  depending  upon  their  ability  to  con- 
sume it  to  good  advantage.  Whenever  heavy  feeds  such  as  corn 
meal,  middlings,  etc.  form  a  part  of  the  ration,  bulky  feeds  such 
as  wheat  bran,  dried  brewers'  grains,  corn  and  cob  meal,  etc. 
should  be  included. 

Some  of  the  most  important  feeds  suitable  for  dairy  cows  will 
be  considered. 

Corn  (Grain). — This  grain  is  used  very  extensively  in  Ameri- 
can dairy  rations  because  it  may  be  successfully  grown  in  most 
all  sections  of  the  United  States.  It  is  relished  by  cattle.  It  is 
relatively  high  in  carbohydrates  and  when  supplemented  with 
another  feed  to  complete  the  ration,  the  latter  must  necessarily 
supply  roughage  and  be  nitrogenous  in  character.  When  whole 
corn  grain  is  fed  some  of  it  passes  through  the  animal  undigested 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  grind  it  and  feed  it  as  corn  meal. 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal,  when  ground  fine,  is  very  satisfactory  for 
dairy  cattle.  When  the  expense  of  grinding  is  not  too  great  it 
may  be  used  profitably.  It  is  practically  equal  to  corn  meal  in 
feeding  value  for  dairy  cows  because  of  its  bulkiness  and  loose- 
ness, which  permits  of  its  being  readily  acted  upon  by  the  di- 
gestive juices. 

Ground  Corn,  Cob  and  Shuck  Meal  is  also  a  good  dairy  feed. 
By  grinding  the  corn  with  the  husk,  the  expense  of  shucking  is 
eliminated. 

Corn  By-Products. — Corn  bran,  corn  germ  meal,  gluten  feed, 
gluten  meal,  grano-gluten  and  hominy  meal  are  used  a  great  deal 
by  feeders  of  dairy  cattle.  Gluten  feed  and  gluten  meal  are  very 
popular  with  the  eastern  feeders  as  a  source  of  protein. 

Wheat  and  Its  By-Products. — Ground  wheat  may  sometimes  be 
fed  when  the  price  is  not  too  high.  It  is  of  equal  feeding  value 


190    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE;  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

to  corn  meal  and  should  be  mixed  with  other  grain  in  forming 
a  ration,  because  it  is  sticky  when  masticated.  The  by-products 
are  superior  to  ground  wheat  for  dairy  cows. 

Wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings  or  shorts  and  red  dog  flour  are 
the  wheat  by-products  fed  in  dairy  rations.  Wheat  bran  is  es- 
pecially desirable.  This  feed  runs  high  enough  in  fiber  to  give 
bulk  and  it  contains  a  high  ash  content  and  a  fair  protein  percent- 
age for  a  concentrate.  Wheat  bran  is  used  in  more  dairy  rations 
perhaps  than  any  other  concentrate.  With  heavy  corn  meal  it 
makes  a  good  combination  as  corn  is  rather  deficient  in  ash  and 
fiber.  Bran  seems  to  aid  digestion,  has  a  cooling  effect,  and  is  a 
mild  laxative.  It  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  dairy  cows  just  after 
calving,  because  at  that  time  the  cow  is  generally  constipated 
and  feverish. 

Middlings  are  much  heavier  than  bran  so  they  are  not  as  good 
a  complement  for  corn  meal  as  bran.  Middlings  are  more  suit* 
able  than  bran  for  animals  of  small  capacity. 

Six  to  eight  pounds  of  bran  and  from  four  to  six  pounds  of 
middlings  may  be  fed  daily  to  dairy  cows.  Dark  feeding  flour 
(red  dog)  is  excellent  dairy  feed  when  the  price  is  within  the 
limit  of  the  feeder.  It  is  a  heavy  feed  and  therefore  should  be 
accompanied  with  some  light  concentrate. 

Barley. — Ground  barley  may  be  fed  profitably  to  dairy  cows, 
at  the  rate  of  3  to  5  Ibs.,  in  certain  sections  when  the  price  is 
low.  Barley  should  always  be  ground.  It  has  about  the  same 
feeding  value  as  corn.  It  is  often  fed  with  oats.  It  contains 
more  digestible  protein  than  corn  and  less  than  oats.  Wheat 
bran,  or  roots,  or  oats,  should  accompany  barley  as  this  latter  feed 
counteracts  the  laxative  effect  of  these  feeds. 

Buckwheat  By-Products. — Buckwheat  bran  and  middlings  are 
satisfactory  milk  producing  feeds. 

Rice  Meal,  pure  rice  bran,  may  be  fed  to  dairy  cows  when  the 
market  value  is  not  too  high.  Four  pounds  of  this  feed  a  day 
are  sufficient. 

Rye  Meal  should  be  fed  in  conjunction  with  ground  oats,  wheat 
bran,  corn  meal,  etc.,  and  should  never  be  supplied  in  quan- 
tities of  more  than  3  pounds  a  day.  An  excess  of  this  feed 


AND  CARE:  OF  DAIRY  cows  191 

affects  the  quality  of  butter  and  for  this  reason  it  is  custo- 
mary to  feed  less  than  3  pounds  a  day. 

Oats. — Ground  oats  make  excellent  feed  for  cows  in  milk.  The 
selling  price  regulates  the  extent  of  its  use  in  dairy  feeding. 
It  may  form  the  whole  grain  part  of  the  ration  and  when 
mixed  with  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  ground  barley  or  rye  meal, 
an  excellent  ration  may  be  completed  with  hay  and  stover. 
Oats  is  easily  digested  and  bulky  and  may  be  fed  economi- 
cally when  the  price  is  slightly  higher  than  corn. 

Pea  Meal  and  ground  oats  when  mixed  together  offer  a  suitable 
feed.  About  y$  pea  meal  together  with  2/z  oats  or  bran  is 
an  ideal  feed.  This  concentrate  is  fed  in  far  northern  sec- 
tions with  good  success 

Vegetable  Oil  By-Products. — Linseed  meal,  cotton-seed  meal 
and  cotton-seed  hulls  are  used  considerably  for  dairy  herds. 
Cotton-seed  is  sometimes  fed  but  at  the  present  prices  it  is 
more  advisable  to  sell  it  to  the  oil  mills.  It  is  a  good  feed. 
Linseed  meal  and  cotton-seed  meal  are  both  used  to  furnish 
protein  in  rations.  A  study  of  Table  I  shows  these  feeds  to 
contain  high  protein  contents.  Practical  feeders  advise  that 
not  over  4  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  be  furnished  per  day 
and  that  some  other  grain  accompany  it  in  a  ration. 

Linseed  meal  is  very  popular  in  the  foreign  countries  where 
it  is  used  a  great  deal  for  feeding.  This  foreign  demand  has 
caused  the  employment  of  this  feed  to  be  too  expensive  for 
supplying  the  protein  of  dairy  rations  in  some  sections.  Three 
to  four  pounds  of  this  concentrate  give  excellent  results  with 
dairy  cows. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  which  are  very  light  and  bulky,  furnish 
excellent  roughage  in  dairy  rations.  Too  much  hulls  are  not 
desirable  and  12  to  14  pounds  a  day  are  enough.  The  price  of 
this  feed  must  be  considered  by  the  feeder.  There  is  a  great 
variation  in  the  composition  of  this  feed,  depending  on  the 
amount  of  broken  kernels  present.  They  are  generally  fed  near 
the  oil  mills. 

Alcoholic  By-Products. — Malt  sprouts,  dried  brewers'  grains, 
and  dried  distillers'  grains  are  protein  concentrates  of  value  for 


192      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

dairy  cattle.  About  25  pounds  of  wet  brewers'  grains  may  be 
fed  successfully  at  points  near  the  breweries.  Their  large  water 
content  and  liability  to  ferment  prohibit  transportation  and  stor- 
age. Malt  sprouts,  dried  brewers'  grains  and  dried  distillers' 
grains  are  used  to  supply  protein  and  may  make  up  2  to  5 
pounds  of  a  day's  ration. 

The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bui.  94 
says,  "After  taking  into  consideration  the  digestible  nutrients 
contained  in  the  several  by-products  (alcoholic),  the  mechanical 
condition  and  palatability,  together  with  the  results  of  different 
trials  with  dairy  animals,  the  following  general  statements  may 
be  made  with  regard  to  the  relative  value  of  the  several  feed 
stuffs. 

"i.  Distillers'  dried  grains  with  32  per  cent,  or  more  protein 
are  fully  equal  if  not  rather  superior  to  gluten  feed  in  feeding 
value. 

"2.  Distillers'  grains  and  gluten  feed  are  worth  fully  one-half 
as  much  again  as  wheat  bran. 

"3.  Brewers'  dried  grains  and  malt  sprouts  do  not  vary  great- 
ly in  feeding  value;  the  former  will  generally  be  given  prefer- 
ence. 

"4.  Brewers'  grains  and  malt  sprouts  are  rather  superior  in 
feeding  value  to  wheat  bran,  probably  10  per  cent." 

Sugar  By-Products. — Cane,  beet  and  sorghum  molasses  and 
beet  pulp  are  used  in  feeding  dairy  cows.  Cane  molasses  is 
especially  palatable  and  digestible  and  4  to  5  pounds  a  day  may 
be  fed  with  good  results  to  furnish  carbohydrate  concentrate. 
Beet  molasses  is  not  so  palatable  as  cane  molasses  but  may  be 
used  to  the  extent  of  2  pounds  mixed  with  other  feed  per  day. 
Sorghum  molasses  is  used  in  mixed  feeds  and  may  be  fed  in 
sections  where  available  at  the  rate  of  2  to  4  pounds  a  day. 
Molasses  is  a  good  tonic  and  conditioner  and  may  often  be  used 
to  advantage  in  disposing  of  unpalatable  roughage.  The  wet 
beet  pulp  may  be  fed  in  close  proximity  to  the  sugar  factory, 
but  it  will  not  stand  storing  and  becomes  too  expensive  when 
transported.  The  New  York  (Geneva)  Experiment  Station  es- 
timates that  pound  for  pound,  the  dry  matter  of  beet  pulp  is 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  193 

equal  to  that  of  corn  silage,  or  approximately,  2  tons  of  wet  beet 
pulp  equal  I  ton  of  corn  silage.  Wet  beet  pulp  seems  to  give 
results  far  above  what  its  chemical  composition  shows.  In  other 
words  it  has  a  beneficial  physiological  effect  for  milk  production. 
The  Colorado  Experiment  Station  recommends  50  pounds  as  a 
maximum1  in  daily  rations.  In  their  investigations  the  following 
ration  was  used: 

24  pounds  wet  beet  pulp 
20  pounds  alfalfa 

4  pounds  corn  chops 

4  pounds  wheat  chops. 

Dried  beet  pulp  seems  to  be  more  suitable  for  fattening  animals 
than  for  dairy  cows. 

Corn  Fodder  and  Stalks. — Corn  stover,  the  whole  corn  plant, 
corn  leaves,  etc.,  furnish  desirable  feed  that  may  be  used  to 
make  up  part  of  the  ration  for  milch  cows.  On  account  of  the 
wide  distribution  of  the  corn  plant,  this  roughage  is  found  in 
dairy  rations  of  many  sections.  These  feeds  are  comparatively 
high  in  carbohydrates  so  that  leguminous  hays  are  excellent  to 
complete  the  roughage  portion  of  rations  containing  any  of 
them. 

Grass  Hays. — Timothy,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  meadow  fescue, 
red  top,  Hungarian  grass  and  other  millets,  orchard  grass, 
prairie  grasses,  tall  oat  grass,  Bermuda,  crab,  Canadian  blue 
grass,  Italian  rye  grass,  rescue  grass,  teosinte,  velvet  grass, 
Russian  broom,  Western  rye  grass,  Texas  blue  grass,  oat,  etc., 
are  fed  as  roughage  to  dairy  cattle.  These  furnish  relatively 
large  proportions  of  carbohydrates  and  when  fed  should  be 
accompanied  with  grains  rich  in  protein  to  form  a  balanced 
ration. 

Timothy  hay  commands  such  a  high  market  price  that  it  is 
only  occasionally  that  the  feeder  can  economically  use  it.  It  is 
usually  more  profitable  to  sell  this  hay  as  the  market  price  is 
g-enerally  far  above  its  feeding  value  for  dairy  cows.  Oats  and 
vetch,  oats  and  peas,  wheat  and  vetch,  oats,  peas  and  vetch  and 
similar  combinations  are  grown  and  furnish  good  roughage  for 
cows  in  milk. 


194    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  harvesting  grasses.  They 
should  be  cut  before  they  become  too  woody  and  lose  color.  In 
curing,  the  green  color  and  aroma  should  be  maintained  as  much 
as  possible. 

Straws. — The  straws  from  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  wheat,  oats 
and  rice  are  sometimes  used  in  furnishing  part  of  the  roughage 
of  dairy  rations.  Oat  straw  when  bright,  may  be  used  to 
advantage.  Many  feeders  use  a  small  amount  of  oat  straw  to 
furnish  a  part  of  the  roughage.  As  a  general  rule  straws  are 
too  woody  and  stiff  to  be  used  to  any  considerable  extent  for 
feeding  dairy  cows  in  milk. 

Legumes. — Alfalfa,  clovers,  Canada  field  pea,  cowpea,  soy 
bean  and  peanut  vine  are  the  principal  leguminous  plants  used 
in  dairy  rations.  Alfalfa  and  the  clovers  are  par  excellence  for 
supplying  roughage.  Cowpea,  peanut  vine,  soy  bean  and  Japan 
clover  (lespedeza)  are  fed  in  the  South  where  they  are  easily 
grown.  All  the  legumes  are  nitrogenous  and  make  excellent 
roughage  for  carbohydrate  concentrates.  Clover  hay  is  fed  more 
in  dairy  rations  than  any  other  leguminous  hay.  It  is  greatly 
relished  by  dairy  cattle. 

Legumes  should  be  harvested  before  they  are  mature  to  have 
the  best  feeding  value.  They  are  usually  highest  in  feeding 
value  just  when  in  blossom.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in 
curing  these  natural  feeds  as  the  shattering  of  the  leaves  and 
other  fine  parts,  results  in  large  losses  of  protein.  Rain  and  dew 
also  injure  these  feeds. 

Methods  of  Curing. — There  are  different  methods  employed  in 
the  successful  curing  of  these  crops.  Some  farmers  cut  this 
class  of  forage  late  in  the  afternoon  so  that  very  little  wilting 
takes  place  before  the  dew  falls.  The  next  day  the  hay  is  cured 
as  rapidly  as  possible  and  stored  away  before  night.  Another 
system  requires  that  the  forage  be  cut  in  the  morning  just  after 
the  dew  has  dried  off.  It  should  not  be  disturbed  until  after- 
noon when  it  is  cocked  before  the  dew  falls.  The  cocks  should 
be  covered  with  caps  to  prevent  rain  injury,  and  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  sweating  process  is  over.  The  cocks  are  then 


AND  CARE:  OF  DAIRY  cows  195 

opened   up  and  allowed  to   dry  a  short  while   until   the   water 
passes  off  and  stored  away  before  the  dew  falls. 

Silage. — This  is  one  of  the  best  fodders  for  dairy  cows.  It 
furnishes  succulent  feed  that  exerts  a  beneficial  physiological 
effect  which  tends  to  increase  milk  production.  In  winter  it  is 
very  acceptable  when  green  feeds  are  not  to  be  had.  It  is  vari- 
able in  composition  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  crop  or 
crops  used,  the  condition  of  growth,  and  with  corn  the  maturity 
of  the  ears.  When  corn  is  harvested  at  too  early  a  stage  it  con- 
tains a  great  deal  of  water  which  tends  to  produce  the  so-called 
sour  silage.  Sweet  silage  is  obtained  from  the  more  mature 
corn  and  may  be  fed  in  larger  quantities  than  sour  silage.  As 
high  as  50  pounds  per  day  are  sometimes  fed  but  30  to  40  pounds 
are  usually  sufficient.  Some  dry  roughage  as  leguminous  hay 
should  be  fed  with  it. 

Corn  and  Legumes  Make  Valuable  Silage. — The  following  from 
Bui.  101,  Illinois  Experiment  Station  is  valuable  data  relative 
to  silage.  "Corn  not  only  produces  a  large  quantity  of  nutritious 
feed  that  is  easily  placed  in  the  silo,  but  it  is  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  pack  readily  and  keep  well.  The  large  southern  varieties 
of  ensilage  corn,  which  give  enormous  yields  in  tons  per  acre, 
have  been  recommended  for  silage ;  but  such  varieties  do  not 
produce  much  grain  and  the  total  nutrients  are  usually  less  than 
from  ordinary  field  corn.  The  best  results  are  obtained  with 
some  variety  that  will  give  a  good  yield  of  grain,  and  by  plant- 
ing somewhat  thicker  than  for  a  grain  crop.  Under  average 
conditions  a  larger  tonnage  of  feed  can  usually  be  obtained  per 
acre  by  combining  corn,  sorghum  and  cowpeas  or  soy  beans,  but 
even  with  this  combination  the  greater  part  of  the  crop  should 
be  corn.  When  either  peas  or  beans  are  grown  with  corn  and 
the  entire  crop  is  put  into  the  silo,  the  feeding  value  is  greater, 
ton  for  ton,  than  that  of  corn  alone.  This  is  a  much  more 
economical  method  of  obtaining  protein  than  by  purchasing  it 
in  high  priced  concentrates,  as  gluten  feed,  cotton-seed  meal, 
linseed  meal,  etc. 


196      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Harvesting  Cora  and  Cowpeas. — "If  cowpeas  are  planted  at  the 
same  time  as  the  corn  and  in  the  rows  with  it,  they  will  usually 
make  a  fair  growth.  Since  the  vines  will  run  up  the  corn 
stalks,  the  entire  crop  can  be  cut  with  the  binder  the  same  as 
corn  alone,  making  practically  no  extra  work  in  rilling  the  silo. 
The  only  difficulty  in  harvesting  corn  and  cowpeas  with  the 
corn  binder  is  that,  if  the  corn  is  missing  for  a  rod  in  the  row, 


Fig.  14.— Corn  and  cowpeas. 


there  is  nothing  to  carry  the  peas  back  into  the  binder  and  it  is 
likely  to  clog.  Where  there  is  a  fairly  uniform  stand  of  corn, 
all  can  be  readily  bound  together.  As  the  stalks  of  soy  beans 
are  much  stiffer  than  those  of  cowpeas,  no  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced in  cutting  them  with  corn." 

Weight  of  Silage. — The  following  table  gives  the  weight  of 
corn  silage  at  different  depths  two  days  after  filling.1 

1  Bui  59,  Wisconsin  Exp.  Station. 


FEED  AND  CARE;  OF  DAIRY  cows 


197 


|t 

*d 

ft 

"od 

jfe 

od 

*o  v 

'te4j  tn 

|g» 

O  D 

'"S-o  * 

*S)0  x 

"o 

"  u 

X  —    X 

iL3.fi 

5  ^  w 

•ssl 

'5  «-  a 

|3>* 

"o  n  c 

'C  Jj  a 

x  fcot! 

3S  = 

"5  fe  5 

£"'3^ 

iti 

fl     ft 

*S| 

s  ?§, 

•^  ^  w 

2g| 

aS"§ 

n 

.Sf«e 

co  be 

M 

2f  ^J5 

cd  bO 

Q 

wte 

rt  bfi 

£•-3 

M   fS 

i^ 

1;   Cd 

5=5 

4*  -2 

£~ 

"35 

^*j 

^*X 

£.M 

'55 

rt 

cd 

i 

2 

I8.7 
20.4 

18.7 

19.6 

13 

14 

37-3 
38.7 

28.3 
29.1 

§ 

51-7 
52.7 

36.5 
37.2 

3 

22.1 

20.6 

15 

40.0 

29.8 

27 

53-6 

37-8 

4 

23-7 

21.2 

16 

41.3 

30-5 

28 

54-6 

38.4 

5 

25.4 

22.1 

17 

42.6 

31.2 

29 

55.5 

39-0 

6 

27.0 

22.9 

18 

43-8 

3L9 

3° 

56.4 

39-6 

7 

28.5 

23.8 

19 

45-o 

32.6 

31 

57-2 

40.1 

8 

30.1 

24.5 

20 

46.2 

33-3 

32 

58.0 

40.7 

9 

31-6 

25-3 

21 

47-4 

33-9 

33 

58.8 

41.2 

10 

33.1 

26.1 

22 

48-5 

34.6 

34 

596 

41.8 

ii 

34-5 

26.8 

23 

49-6 

35-3 

35 

60.3 

42.3 

12 

35-9 

27.6 

24 

50.6 

359 

36 

61.0 

42.8 

According  to  King:1  "The  weight  of  corn  silage  increases 
with  the  depth  below  the  surface,  with  the  amount  of  water  in 
the  silage,  and  with  the  diameter  of  the  silo.  In  silos  of  small 
diameters  the  amount  of  surface  in  the  wall  is  so  much  greater 
in  proportion  to  the  silage  contained  that  the  friction  on  the 
sides  has  more  influence  in  preventing  the  settling  of  the  silage. 

"Capacity  of  Silos. — The  capacities  of  silos  increase  more  rap- 
idly than  do  their  depths,  so  much  that  a  silo  36  feet  deep  will 
contain  nearly  five  times  as  much  silage  as  one  only  one- 
third  that  depth;  and  when  it  is  remembered  that  there  is  less 
necessary  loss  with  deep  silage  the  importance  of  depth  will  be 
appreciated. 

"Doubling  the  diameter  of  the  silo  increases  its  capacity  a 
little  more  than  four  times,  while  trebling  its  diameter  increases 
its  capacity  nine-fold.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  cost  of 
storage  decreases  rapidly  with  increase  in  the  size  of  the  silo." 

The  following  tables  give  the  approximate  capacities  of  round 
silos  in  tons  of  corn  silage. 

1  Bui.  59,  Wisconsin  Exp.  Station. 


198      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


IS 

o,      OOOi~'iot^-Mr^ON'3-fNcoqi>- 

c     \6  o\  ci  1006  <N  vd  d  «o  o  «o  d  10 
r-.oo  O  >-i  CN  Tt-  10  t^co  0  M  jo  ^r 

MMCNrN<NCSf>lCN|<NcOcOcOcO 

X 

a,        T*  t^GO    co  lO  ON  Tf  lO  C^^D  VO    M  VO 
5        fO  TJ-vO    CTVM    cOt^-O    rO  t^.  M    IO<T> 
9      VO   t^.00    &  M    CN    fO  iO^T>   t-»  ON  O    M 
MMMM^lNCSCSCSCSCSrOcO 

a      vo    O    CS  v£>    ON  ^tCO  (50    N  CO    t^CO  VO 

cs 

5        O    M    (N    fO  rf  vb  00    O    rO  lOCO    «    rf 
2        ^^    t^OO    O>  O    HH    ro  rf  lO^D  GO    ON 

a:        rOONMt-»O»OONOcO  O^CO    <N    lO 

5? 

5       CO    t^CO  00    ON  ON  O    CS    ro  ^fvO  00    O 
£        fO  Tf  lO^O    r^>CO    O    M    (N    rO  ^t  lO  t^ 

m       vO    fO  t^  rO  t^  Tj-00    O    CO  ONOO    ro  >O 

-J 

CS 

c     vo'io-^--4-fococo^tTfTf  ir>\6  s>- 

2        (N    CO  Tf  lO^O    r^OO    ON  O    ^    <N    CO  Tf 

1 

meter  in 

i-t 

tn        CO  COCO  ^O    M    O    lOt^CNOO    t^cOiO 
C        lO  CO  M    O    ONOO'    t^-vO  ^6    lO  lO  tO  lO 
2        M    W    cO  Tf  TJ-  lOMD    t~>.00    ON  O    M    f» 

i 

1 
1 

° 

w       ^OOOvO>OcOcOONcO  ONV£)  VO    CN  ^O 

M 

o     ^j-i-iaNt^iocoMocd  t^-vd  10  TJ- 

-M        Qi-ii-HrMcO^J-iOO^O    t^-CO    ON  O 

g           TtONONHHMfOMr^TtCO^tMVO 

M 

"*O  t^iocs  ONr^^fN  oco^o  TT 
•^       ONOO^CNCSCO-^  iovo  ^O  t^co 

Ti-  r^  •*^- 
w        t-»  lOCO    cO^O    MOOOCOONMCNt^ 

M 

o     -^t  d  vd  co  dSvd  co  cfvvo'  co  M  co'  10 

<j      COONONOOMCNWcO^tiO  lO^O 

CO    ONOO    '^•00 
tn        10  r^  co  M    t^vO  00  CO    O    COCO    M  CO 

c 

M 

S        10  O  VO    CN    t^.  cO  ON  »O  <N  CO'    rj-  M    t^. 
^        t^OO  OOONONOOMCSCNcO^f 

.a 

CS 

rr 

vO 

M 

lO^O     CN     M     M     Tf   CO 

2        O>  lO  lO^D  vOvD    CNvO    M   !>.TtONON 

5     vd  M"  ^d  M  v>o  oV  t>-  N  co'  co  ON  ^  10 

*•"      vo   r^  t^OO  OOOOONOOi-ii-((Nco 

d 
x 

w 

a 

^ 

TJ-O  locoes  f*  ior^o>o) 

tfl         OOONCOt^MVO-^-MONONOCOM 

§      GO*    <N    t^-  I-H  \D    O    »0  O    rt-  ON  lO  OMO 
2        iO>O  ^0   t-«  t--00  00    ON  ON  ON  O    O    M 

^ 

^ 

f 
| 

£ 

*1 

O    «    C4    cO  "3-  iO\O    t^CO    ON  O    M    C4 
CNCSCSCNCSCSCSWCNICSCOCOCO 

1 

FEED  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


TABLE  B.1 

(The  diameter  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  columns  and  depth  at  the  left. ) 


23 

bo'55 

'& 

Inside  diameter  of  silo  in  feet  and  the  capacity  in  tons  (2,000  Ibs.). 

10  ft. 

nft. 

12  ft. 

13  ft- 

14  ft. 

15  ft. 

i6ft. 

17  ft. 

i8ft. 

19  ft. 

20  ft. 

feet 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

2O 

26 

21 

28 

22 

30 

36 

23 

32 

39 

24 

34 

4i 

49 

25 

36 

43 

52 

26 

38 

46 

55 

64 

27 

40 

49 

58 

68 

28 

42 

5i 

61 

7i 

83 

29 

44 

54 

64 

75 

87 

30 

47 

56 

67 

79 

91 

105 

31 

49 

59 

70 

83 

96 

no 

32 

5i 

62 

74 

86 

100 

H5 

131 

33 

53 

65 

77 

90 

105 

121 

138 

34 

56 

68 

80 

94 

109 

126 

143 

162 

35 
36 

58 
61 

70 
73 

84 

87 

98 
1  02 

114 

118 

132 
136 

149 
155 

169 
176 

I96 

37 

63 

76 

90 

106 

123 

142 

161 

183 

204 

38 

66 

79 

94 

no 

128 

148 

167 

191 

212 

237 

39 

68 

82 

97 

U5 

133 

154 

174 

I98 

221 

247 

40 

70 

85 

101 

119 

138 

1  60 

180 

205 

229 

256 

280 

The  Horizontal  Feeding  Area. — Silage  must  be  removed  from 
the  top  and  not  sliced  or  cut  down  vertically  as  is  often  practiced 
in  feeding  hay  from  the  mow  or  stack,  because  the  entrance  of 
air  will  rapidly  spoil  it.  It  is  considered  that  at  least  1.2  inches 
should  be  removed  per  day  from  the  top  to  prevent  molding. 
Two  inches  of  corn  silage  weigh  5  Ibs.  per  square  foot  at  the 
top  and  10  Ibs.  at  the  bottom,  or  an  average  of  7.5  Ibs.  for  the 
silo.  The  daily  requirement  for  a  cow,  at  this  rate,  would  be 
about  5  square  feet  surface  area.  The  feeding  area  should  not 
be  so  large  that  enough  cannot  be  fed  per  day  to  prevent 
deterioration. 

1  Bui.  21,  Concrete  Review. 


2OO      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


The  table1  which  follows  gives  the  diameters  and  depths  of 
silos  of  two  types  which  hold  enough  silage  for  180  days,  feeding 
2  or  3.2  inches  a  day,  allowing  each  cow  40  Ibs. 


Silo  30  ft.  deep  without  partition 

Silo  24  ft.  deep  without  partition 

No.  of 
cows 

Contents 

Round 

Square 

Mean 
depth 

Contents 

Round 

Square 

Mean 
depth 

tons 

cu.  ft. 

in  feet 

in 
feet 

led 
daily 
inches 

tons 

cu.  ft. 

in  feet 

sides  in 
feet 

fed 
daily 
inches 

30 

108 

4091 

15- 

12x14 

2 

108 

5510 

17. 

16x16 

3-2 

40 

144 

6545 

16.75 

14x16 

2 

144 

7347 

20. 

18x18 

3-2 

50 

180 

8182 

18.75 

16x18 

2 

1  80 

9184 

22. 

20X20 

3-2 

60 

216 

9818 

20.5 

18x18 

2 

216 

1  1020 

24. 

22X22 

3-2 

70 

252 

11454 

22. 

20X20 

2 

252 

12857 

26. 

22X26 

3-2 

80 

288 

13091 

23-5 

20X22 

2 

288 

14691 

28. 

24x26 

3-2 

90 

324 

14727 

25- 

22X24 

2 

324 

I653I 

29-75 

26X28 

3-2 

100 

36o 

16364 

26.5 

24X24 

2 

360 

18367 

31.25 

28x28 

3-2 

1 

This  table2  gives  the  number  of  cows  in  herd  and  tonnage  of 
silage  for  both  180  and  240  days  of  feeding  of  40  pounds  of  sil- 
age per  cow,  also  acreage  of  corn  estimated  to  fill  the  silo  and 
the  dimensions  of  the  silo  itself.  The  diameters  given  are  such 
that  at  least  2  inches  in  depth  of  silage  will  be  taken  off  daily. 


Number  of  cows 
in  herd 

Feed  for  180  days 

Feed  for  240  days 

Estimated  ton- 
nage of  silage 
consumed 

Size  of  silo 

Corn  acreage  re- 
quired at  15 
tons  to  acre 

Estimated  ton- 
nage of  silage 
consumed 

Size  of  Silo 

Corn  acreage  ie- 
quired  at  15 
tns  otoacre 

Diameter 

ic 
to 
'v 

K 

Diameter 

ft 
jfl 

'£ 
% 

tons 

36 
43 
54 
72 
90 
108 
126 
144 
162 
180 
216 
252 

feet 

IO 
IO 

II 

12 
13 

14 
15 

16 
16 

17 
18 

IQ 

feet 

25 
28 

29 
32 
33 
34 
34 
35 
37 
37 
39 
40 

acres 

2/2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

r/2 
%yz 

10 

II 

12 

14* 

17 

tons 

48 

57 
72 
96 

120 
144 

168 
192 
216 
240 
288 
tt6 

feet 

10 
IO 

ii 

12 
13 
15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

feet 

31 
35 
36 

39 
40 

8 

39 
39 
39 

40 

acres 

31A 
4 
5 
6^ 
8 

10 

it 
13 
Htf 
16 

19 

25  

3°  

35  

4U  

iC"" 

70.  •                 

1  Bui.  59,  Wisconsin  Exp.  Station. 

2  Bui.  21,  Concrete  Review. 


FEED  AND  CARE:  OF  DAIRY  cows 


201 


Roots  and  Tubers. — Carrots,  beets,  sweet  potatoes,  Irish  pota- 
toes, turnips,  rutabagas,  etc.,  are  feeds  that  exert  a  beneficial 
effect  on  dairy  cows.  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes  usually  com- 
mand too  high  a  price  to  warrant  using  them  as  feed.  How- 
ever, when  the  market  price  is  low  it  sometimes  pays  to  feed 
them.  Beet  (mangel)  sugar-beet,  rutabagas,  carrots,  and  tur- 
nips are  often  fed  with  profit.  These  feeds  increase  milk  pro- 


Fig-  I5- — Roots  (mangels),  a  good  succulent  feed. 

duction  far  above  what  would  be  expected  from  their  chemical 
composition.  In  northern  sections  where  corn  is  easily  grown 
it  is  perhaps  more  economical  to  make  silage  than  to  grow  roots 
for  feeding.  The  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  found  sugar 
beets  to  have  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  corn  silage.  The 
Colorado  Experiment  Station  found  that  one  ton  of  beets  is 
equivalent  to  two  tons  of  beet  pulp.  A  great  deal  more  dry 
matter  may  be  produced  on  the  same  area  by  growing  corn, 
14 


202      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

than  roots.  In  southern  localities  roots  may  be  grown  in  the 
winter  when  land  is  often  idle,  and  harvested  in  time  to  plant 
corn  and  other  summer  crops.  Roots  should  be  sliced  before 
feeding.  They  seem  to  exert  a  cooling  effect  on  animals.  The 
mangel  is  probably  the  most  profitable  root  crop  to  feed. 

Pasturage. — When  dairy  cows  are  receiving  plenty  of  green 
pasture  grass,  the  production  of  milk  generally  increases  and 
under  such  conditions  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  any  roughage.1 
Sometimes  a  small  amount  of  grain  (2  Ibs.)  fed  occasionally 
at  the  afternoon  feeding  is  beneficial.  If  the  pasturage  is  scant 
the  cows  will  require  sufficient  feed  to  supplement  it. 

Soiling. — Some  farms  have  not  the  acreage  to  support  the 
number  of  cows  the  dairyman  wishes  to  keep  by  pasturing. 
On  other  farms  the  pastures  become  poor  at  certain  times.  On 
such  farms  green  crops  are  cut  and  fed  fresh  to  the  animals. 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  labor  involved  in  handling  green  crops 
in  this  way  and  for  this  reason  soiling  is  not  popular  in  some 
sections.  In  furnishing  green  crops  to  cows,  the  dairyman  must 
arrange  so  that  green  feed  may  be  furnished  continuously.  Oats, 
rye,  alfalfa,  clovers,  oats  and  peas,  sorghum,  corn,  etc.,  are 
popular  soiling  crops. 

Salt. — This  should  be  allowed  the  cows  regularly.  If  the 
cows  are  on  pasture  a  sheltered  box  containing  rock  salt  or 
pulverized  salt  is  helpful.  Some  feeders  mix  a  little  pulverized 
salt  or  common  salt  in  the  feed,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
add  too  much  and  make  the  feed  unpalatable.  About  94  to  i 
ounce  of  salt  a  day  should  be  given  regularly. 

Water. — A  good  artesian  well  or  other  pure  water  should  be 
supplied  the  animals  at  a  place  near  or  in  the  barn,  so  that  the 
cows  will  not  be  forced  to  go  a  long  distance  in  severe  weather. 
They  should  be  allowed  all  they  wish  as  milk  requires  a  great 
deal  of  water  for  a  good  production.  If  the  water  is  not  at  the 
animals'  disposal  it  should  be  supplied  regularly  two  or  three 
times  a  day.  If  a  trough  or  other  vessel  is  used,  the  feeder 
should  make  sure  that  it  is  kept  clean. 

Shelter. — In  the  summer,  flies  annoy  the  cows  and  effect  milk 
production.  Some  dairymen  keep  their  cows  in  dark,  cool  places 


FEED  AND  CARE)  OF  DAIRY  COWS  2O3 

during  the  day  and  pasture  them  at  night,  feeding  green  crops 
during  the  day.  All  pastures  should  have  some  trees  to  furnish 
shade  during  the  hot  days. 

Exercise. — In  the  cold  winters  cows  should  get  several  hours 
of  exercise  daily,  to  keep  up  milk  production.  Often  it  is  too  dis- 
agreeable to  exercise  the  cows  outside,  and  a  change  to  some 
roomy,  well  ventilated,  covered  enclosure,  which  is  bedded  with 
straw  and  horse  manure  and  sprinkled  with  some  material  such 
as  land  plaster,  makes  a  desirable  place  for  the  animals  to  rest 
and  exercise. 

Kindness. — The  dairy  cow  is  generally  a  nervous  animal  and 
should  always  be  treated  gently  for  best  results.  Dairy  cattle 
like  people  do  not  enjoy  harsh  and  abusive  treatment.  To  keep 
up  a  good  flow  of  milk  the  cows  should  be  quiet  and  contented 
and  any  treatment  that  tends  to  make  them  nervous,  results  in 
lessening  milk  production. 

Rations  for  Dairy  Cows. — In  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bui.  38,  Woll  gives  statistics  on  100  American  dairy  ra- 
tions. Some  of  the  data  from  this  bulletin  is  given  for  the 
student  because  it  represents  actual  practice  of  some  of  the 
leading  American  dairymen. 

In  all,  2,921  cows  in  milk  were  represented  as  receiving  these 
rations.  A  few  of  these  rations  may  prove  of  interest. 

Colorado — 20  Ibs.  alfalfa  hay,  10  Ibs.  corn  fodder,  3  Ibs.  cot- 
ton-seed meal,  4  Ibs.  corn  meal,  13  Ibs.  bran,  35  Ibs.  mangolds. 

Connecticut — 35  Ibs.  corn  silage,  10  Ibs.  hay,  3  Ibs.  bran,  3 
Ibs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  2  Ibs.  Chicago  gluten  meal,  2  Ibs.  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Illinois — 7^  Ibs.  clover  hay,  7^  Ibs.  timothy  hay,  12  Ibs.  corn 
and  cob  meal,  8  Ibs.  bran,  i%  Ibs.  linseed  meal,  i%  Ibs.  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Indiana — 30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  5  Ibs.  clover  hay,  3  Ibs.  corn  fod- 
der, i  Ib.  oat  straw,  I  Ib.  wheat  straw,  5  Ibs.  bran,  2  Ibs.  oil 
meal,  2  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal. 

Iowa — 50  Ibs.  corn  silage,  5  Ibs.  hay,  5  Ibs.  corn  fodder,  I  Ib. 
oat  straw,  i  Ib.  barley  straw,  5  Ibs.  ear  corn,  2^  Ibs.  ground  oats 
and  barley. 


2O4      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Kansas — 50  Ibs.  sorghum  fodder,  7^  Ibs.  hay,  3.2  Ibs.  bran, 
3.2  Ibs.  corn  meal,  i^>  Ibs.  oil  meal. 

Kentucky — 32.5  Ibs.  corn  silage,  6  Ibs.  clover  hay,  3  Ibs.  corn 
fodder,  5  Ibs.  corn  meal,  4  Ibs.  shipstuif,  2  Ibs.  oil  meal. 

Louisiana1 — 11  Ibs.  lespedeza  hay,  3.5  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal, 
13.5  Ibs.  cotton-seed  hulls,  4.5  Ibs.  corn  meal. 

Massachusetts — 40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  5  Ibs.  English  hay,  5  Ibs. 
clover  hay,  2  Ibs.  bran,  2  Ibs.  gluten  meal,  I  Ib.  cotton-seed  meal, 
i  Ib.  linseed  meal. 

Michigan — 27^  Ibs.  corn  silage,  3^  Ibs.  clover  hay,  3^  Ibs. 
timothy  hay,  3.6  Ibs.  bran,  J/£  Ib.  oats,  I  Ib.  rye,  J^  Ib.  linseed 
meal. 

Minnesota — 8  Ibs.  corn  fodder,  7  Ibs.  clover  and  timothy  hay, 

5  Ibs.  sheaf  oats,  3  Ibs.  rutabagas,  2  Ibs.  bran,  3  Ibs.  oats,  3  Ibs. 
corn  meal,  2  Ibs.  oil  cake. 

Nebraska — 20  Ibs.  prairie  hay,  10  Ibs.  corn  fodder,  5.7  Ibs. 
corn  meal,  2.9  Ibs.  bran,  1.4  Ibs.  oil  meal. 

New  Hampshire — 11.7  Ibs.  clover  and  witch  grass  hay,  3.3  Ibs. 
oat  straw,  10  Ibs.  meadow  hay,  2  Ibs.  shorts,  2  Ibs.  corn  and  cob 
meal,  I  Ib.  ground  pease,  i  Ib.  oats,  I  Ib.  barley 

New  Jersey — 24  Ibs.  corn  silage,  4  Ibs.  corn  meal,  2  Ibs.  bran, 

6  Ibs.  oats,  2  Ibs.  oil  meal. 

New  York — 9  Ibs.  clover  hay,  9  Ibs.  timothy  hay,  5  Ibs.  corn 
fodder,  5  Ibs.  oat  and  pea  straw,  i  Ib.  oats,  i  Ib.  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings, i  Ib.  corn,  i  Ib.  rye  bran,  i  Ib.  wheat  bran,  1.6  Ibs.  cotton- 
seed meal. 

North  Carolina — 30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  8  Ibs.  fodder  corn,  3  Ibs. 
corn  meal,  3  Ibs.  bran,  i  Ib.  cotton-seed  meal. 

Ohio — 10  Ibs.  clover  hay,  20  Ibs.  corn  stalks,  8  Ibs.  corn  meal, 
3  Ibs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  i  Ib.  bran,  8  Ibs.  roots. 

Pennsylvania — 10  Ibs.  clover  hay,  5  Ibs.  timothy  hay,  2^  Ibs. 
corn  fodder,  6l/2  Ibs.  corn  meal,  2  Ibs.  oats,  3.2  Ibs.  bran,  1^/2 
Ibs.  oil  meal,  15  Ibs.  carrots. 

Texas — 30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  13^  Ibs.  sorghum  hay,  1.3  Ibs. 
corn  meal,  2.6  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2.2  Ibs.  cotton-seed,  1.3  Ibs. 
wheat  bran. 

1  Not  included  in  average,  supplied  by  the  writer. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


205 


Utah — 35  Ibs.  alfalfa  hay,  6^3  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  3^3  Ibs.  barley. 

Vermont — 35  Ibs.  corn  silage,  10  Ibs.  mixed  hay,  2  Ibs.  bran, 
3.2  Ibs.  corn  meal,  I  Ib.  linseed  meal,  0.8  Ib.  cotton-seed  meal. 

West  Virginia — 48  Ibs.  corn  silage,  2^2  Ibs.  corn  and  cob 
meal,  2.y2  Ibs.  ground  wheat,  2^  Ibs.  oats,  2^  Ibs.  barley 
meal. 

Washington — 15  Ibs.  alfalfa  hay,  7  Ibs.  bran,  7  Ibs.  shorts,  2 
Ibs.  malt  sprouts. 

Wisconsin — 22  Ibs.  corn  silage,  4  Ibs.  clover  hay,  4  Ibs.  timothy 
hay,  2  Ibs.  oat  straw,  2  Ibs.  corn  stalks,  6  Ibs.  wheat  screenings, 
2  Ibs.  malt  sprouts,  2  Ibs.  oil  meal,  I  Ib.  wheat  bran. 

Canada — 30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  7^  Ibs.  hay,  6l/2  Ibs.  straw,  25 
Ibs.  turnips,  1.3  Ibs.  pea  meal,  2.5  Ibs.  oats,  1.3  Ibs.  barley. 

In  the  loo  rations  were  included  3  succulent  feeds,  18  coarse 
dry  fodders,  27  concentrates,  6  kinds  of  roots  and  tubers,  and  I 
miscellaneous  (skim  milk).  Of  these  55  feeds  several  were  used 
in  many  rations.  The  list  that  follows  shows  the  number  of 
times  the  most  popular  feeds  were  employed. 


times 

Wheat  bran 73 

Corn  silage 64 

Mixed  hay 42 

Corn  meal 42 

Clover  hay 40 

Linseed  meal 37 

Cotton-seed  meal 35 

Oats 35 

Corn  fodder  and  stalks 35 

Timothy  hay 21 


times 

Oat  straw       16 

Corn  and  cob  meal 14 

Barley      13 

Roots    13 

Wheat  shorts 13 

Wheat  middlings 1 1 

Gluten  meal 8 

Pea  meal 6 

Wheat 3 

Malt  sprouts 3 


NUTRIENTS  IN  THE  100  RATIONS  IN  POUNDS 


No.  of 
rations 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  matter 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy 
drates 

Fat 

New  England  States  
Middle  States.  . 

II 

31 
20 
21 
2 

5 

I 

9 

24.28 
24.65 
22.97 

25-79 
23.48 
30.81 
21.  60 
21-57 

2.IO 
2.27 
1.97 
2.08 
2.00 
3.12 

2.68 
1.76 

I3-I9 
13.68 
12.78 

13-79 
12.14 

15-39 
10.54 
11.69 

0-75 
0.82 
0.72 

0.68 
1.05 
0.79 

0-55 
0.63 

1:7.1 
:6.8 
7-3 
:7-3 
-.7.2 

••s-s 

•44 
17.4 

Central  States  

North  Central  States  

Rocky  Mountain  States-  - 
Parifip  States 

206      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Alfalfa  was  the  principle  roughage  used  in  the  western  ra- 
tions which  accounts  for  the  narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

Dr.  Woll  gives  the  average  nutritive  ratio  for  128  herds  from 
the  different  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  as: 

AMERICAN  STANDARD  RATION  FOR  DAIRY  Cows. 


Average  for 

Dry  matter 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 

Digestible 
fat 
pounds 

Nutritive 
ratio 

2/1    ^  T 

0     T  C 

I  *6  Q 

^4-a1 

•^  XD 

Ao-^/ 

As  previously  stated  the  width  of  a  profitable  dairy  ration 
depends  upon  the  cost  of  the  feeds  locally.  In  some  sections 
wider  or  narrower  rations  than  the  above  may  be  best  for  cer- 
tain conditions.  The  feeds  that  go  to  make  up  a  ration  are 
influenced  by  market  prices  of  those  that  are  available.  Hence 
it  is  impossible  to  state  the  best  ration  for  dairy  cows.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  most  of  the  dairy  rations  fed  in  America  is 
much  wider  than  the  Wolff  standard  given  in  Table  II.  From 
the  foregoing  data  the  student  should  experience  little  trouble 
in  selecting  feeds  and  compounding  a  ration  suitable  to  the  con- 
ditions of  his  home. 

Suggestion : — Is  there  any  objection  to  feeding  a  ration  to  a 
milch  cow  composed  of  linseed  meal,  wheat  bran,  gluten  feed 
and  alfalfa  hay?  Require  the  students  to  make  a  list  of  the 
available  feeds  in  the  locality;  their  prices;  and  require  them 
to  compute  the  cheapest  rations  possible  for  milch  cows. 

Have  one  of  the  students  explain  the  construction  of  a  silo, 
the  way  the  crop  is  prepared  for  siloing  and  the  appearance  of 
the  silage  after  it  has  been  in  the  silo  for  some  time.  Examine 
some  silage  and  allow  the  students  to  taste  it.  If  there  is  a 
silo  in  the  vicinity  a  trip  to  it  may  prove  profitable. 


SECTION  XXX. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  FATTENING  CATTLE. 

Requirements. — We  have  learned  that  fattening  animals  re- 
quire enough  protein  to  repair  the  wastes,  and  carbohydrates 
must  be  supplied  to  increase  body  weight.  Hence  the  carbohy- 
drates should  predominate  in  rations  for  fattening  animals. 

The  amount  of  protein  required  will  depend  upon  the  age  of 
the  animal.  Mature  animals  require  very  little  protein  and  a 
wide  nutritive  ratio  is  satisfactory  for  the  laying  on  of  fat. 
The  width  of  the  ration  will  be  influenced  by  the  available  feeds 
and  market  values,  and  the  cost  per  pound  of  increase  in  live 
weight.  In  some  sections  where  alfalfa  is  cheap  and  abundant, 
a  suitable  ration  would  necessarily  be  narrower  than  one  where 
carbohydrate  roughage  and  grains  are  economical.  The  addition 
of  protein  from  some  nitrogenous  concentrate  as  linseed  meal,, 
gluten  feed,  cotton-seed  meal,  etc.,  tends  to  increase  the  effi- 
ciency of  fattening  rations  and  makes  them  more  palatable. 
Sometimes  it  is  cheaper  to  supply  most  of  the  protein  from  some 
protein  roughage. 

A  fattening  ration  should  not  only  be  palatable  but  should  be 
easily  digestible,  hence  rough  fodders  are  not  suitable.  A  variety 
of  materials  should  make  up  the  ration. 

Cattle  should  average  2  Ibs".  gain  in  live  weight  per  day  dur- 
ing the  fattening  period.  The  gain  of  course  depends  upon  the 
age  of  the  animals.  Experiments  have  shown  that  young  ani- 
mals gain  faster  than  those  more  mature.  During  the  first  part 
of  the  fattening  period  cattle  gain  more  than  at  the  latter  part 
and  the  longer  the  fattening  period  the  more  feed  is  required 
to  produce  a  given  gain  in  weight.  It  is  considered  that  12  to 
13  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  are  required  for  I  pound  of  gain.  The 
animals  should  be  allowed  all  the  roughage  they  will  eat. 

Corn  is  the  best  grain  feed  for  fattening  cattle.  In  this 
country  it  is  used  more  than  any  other  single  grain  for  this 
purpose.  Because  of  its  high  content  of  starch  it  is  admirably 
suited  for  producing  fat. 


2O8      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Snapped  Corn. — This  is  the  unhusked  ear  which  is  snapped  or 
broken  from  the  stalk.  It  is  the  most  popular  feed  in  the  West 
and  produces  excellent  results.  Some  feeders  fatten  their  cat- 
tle on  this  feed  alone,  claiming  that  the  husk  and  cob  furnish 
sufficient  roughage.  Farmers  who  practice  this  method  of  feed- 
ing often  leave  the  stalks  in  the  field  allowing  the  cattle  to  eat 
what  they  wish  of  them.  It  is  better  to  harvest  the  stalks  and 
use  them  as  roughage,  for  there  is  a  great  deal  of  waste  and 
loss  of  nutrients  by  allowing  the  stalks  to  remain  in  the  field. 
Cattle  fed  snapped  corn  sometimes  become  troubled  with  sore 
mouths.  In  such  cases  the  animal  should  be  fed  a  mixture  of 
corn  and  cob  meal  and  wheat  bran  or  some  other  easily  masti- 
cated grain,  mixture  until  the  soreness  disappears.  In  feeding 
snapped  corn  the  cattle  should  receive  some  leguminous  rough- 
age such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  soy  bean,  etc. 

Shocked  Corn. — This  is  a  very  satisfactory  feed  for  fattening 
cattle.  The  harvester  cuts  and  ties  the  fodder  corn  into  bundles 
and  the  corn  is  then  put  in  shock  at  a  small  expense.  It  is 
well  preserved  for  winter  feeding  by  this  procedure  and  the 
husk  prevents  the  ear  corn  from  becoming  too  hard  for  cattle 
to  masticate.  Shocked  corn  is  more  easily  preserved  than  snapped 
corn  because  in  storing  the  latter  it  is  hard  to  keep  up  a  free 
circulation  of  air.  This  shocked  corn  is  placed  in  sheltered 
feed  racks  with  enough  space  between  the  racks  to  permit  the 
animal  free  use  of  the  head.  Sometimes  the  bundles  are  scat- 
tered over  a  field.  The  cattle  eat  some  of  the  fodder  in  this 
method.  Pigs  should  follow  cattle  to  pick  up  the  wastes  and 
droppings  as  some  of  the  corn  kernels  pass  through  the  animal 
undigested.  One  pig  to  one  steer  is  sufficient.  This  indirect 
method  of  selling  corn  is  profitable.  The  cattle  often  pay  for 
the  corn  and  the  profits  are  derived  from  selling  the  pigs. 

Protein  is  Desirable. — It  is  often  profitable  to  limit  the  amount 
of  shocked  corn  in  a  steer's  ration  and  supplement  it  with  corn 
and  cob  meal,  shelled  corn,  and  some  protein  concentrate  as 
linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  gluten  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  etc. 
Sometimes  wheat  bran  may  be  used  instead  of  a  protein  con- 
centrate when  the  market  value  is  low.  When  nitrogenous 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  FATTENING  CATTLE          209 

roughage  as  alfalfa,  clover,  etc.,  is  profitable  to  feed,  the  nitrog- 
enous concentrates  may  be  reduced. 

Husked  Corn  is  sometimes  fed.  It  is  cheaper  and  more  desira- 
ble to  feed  snapped  or  shocked  corn  than  husked  corn.  Husked 
corn  becomes  exceedingly  dry  and  hard  and  has  the  tendency  to 
produce  sore  mouths  and  gums  when  fed  in  large  quantities. 
It  is  often  practical  to  crush  corn  to  make  it  more  easily  masti- 
cated. 

Corn  Meal  seems  to  be  favored  by  Eastern  feeders.  Larger 
gains  are  made  with  meal  than  with  unground  grain.  Of 
course  corn  meal  is  a  heavier  feed  than  the  whole  ear  and  care 
must  be  exercised  in  its  use.  For  Western  and  Southern  feed- 
ers it  is  no  doubt  cheaper  to  feed  the  whole  unground  ear  be- 
cause of  the  expense  of  grinding. 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal. — Experiments  have  demonstrated  that  corn 
and  cob  meal  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  corn  meal.  This 
feed  is  more  bulky  than  corn  meal  and  hence  it  is  easily  at- 
tacked by  the  digestive  fluids. 

Corn  Stover  is  always  a  cheap  roughage  on  the  farm.  It 
should  supply  at  least  one-half  the  roughage  when  available. 
Alfalfa  or  clover  make  excellent  complements  of  stover  to  com- 
plete the  roughage  of  a  ration.  It  is  often  desirable  to  cut  up 
the  stover  or  shred  it  to  insure  a  larger  consumption.  The  cost 
of  course  will  determine  the  practicability  of  such  practice. 

Corn  Silage. — When  the  farm  is  equipped  with  a  silo  it  pays 
to  allow  the  cattle  about  10  to  15  Ibs.  a  day  during  the  pre- 
liminary and  middle  periods  of  fattening.  Silage  seems  to 
help  the  cattle  in  the  preliminary  and  middle  periods  of  fatten- 
ing by  supplying  water  and  bulk,  by  increasing  the  appetite  and 
by  producing  a  cooling  and  laxative  effect.  It  is  perhaps  un- 
profitable to  construct  a  silo  just  for  feeding  fattening  cattle. 

The    Indiana    Experiment    Station    produced    good    gains    by 
feeding  the  following  ration  to  fattening  steers: 
2.5  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 
4.4  pounds  clover  hay 
14.4  pounds  shelled  corn 
27.7  pounds  corn  silage 

With  silage  the  cost  of  gain  was  ^  cent  a  pound  less  than 


210      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

with  dry  feed  and  the  increase  in  profits  amounted  to  $3~$8 
per  steer.  The  cotton-seed  meal  gave  better  results  than  oil 
meal  and  tended  to  produce  a  firmer  flesh  with  silage. 

Wheat  Bran. — When  the  market  price  permits,  wheat  bran 
may  be  utilized  for  giving  bulk  to  a  ration.  It  seems  to  pro- 
duce a  slight  laxative  action  and  possess  cooling  properties 
which  are  desirable.  When  corn  meal  is  fed,  wheat  bran  is  es- 
pecially valuable  in  the  ration. 

Protein  Concentrates. — Linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  gluten  meal, 
cotton-seed  meal,  etc.,  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  in  fur- 
nishing protein  to  fattening  animals.  A  little  protein  especially 
from  linseed  meal  seems  to  give  a  finish  to  beef  and  often  re- 
duces the  fattening  period.  This  is  helpful  on  a  declining  market. 
Linseed  meal  or  oil  cake  at  the  rate  of  2  to  4  Ibs.  a  day  is  ex- 
ceedingly beneficial  for  the  finishing  period.  Cotton-seed  and 
cotton-seed  meal  are  good  beef  producing  feeds.  3  to  4  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  is  sufficient  per  day. 

Roots  are  valuable  in  the  preliminary  period  of  fattening,  but 
should  not  be  fed  during  the  finishing  period,  because  they  pro- 
duce soft  flesh.  10  to  20  Ibs.  of  roots  per  day  are  ample.  Roots 
should  always  be  sliced  or  pulped  before  feeding.  In  fatten- 
ing rations  the  feeds  are  generally  heat  producing  and  roots 
seem  to  exert  a  cooling  effect  which  is  beneficial.  In  the  corn 
belt  it  is  cheaper  to  feed  silage  because  twice  as  much  dry 
matter  can  be  obtained  from  equal  areas  by  growing  corn  than 
roots.  The  mangel  is  the  best  root  crop  for  steers  and  it  pro- 
duces a  higher  tonnage  than  the  other  roots. 

Beet  pulp  has  been  shown  by  experiments  to  be  a  good  feed 
for  fattening  cattle.  With  alfalfa  as  an  adjunct,  in  sections 
where  alfalfa  is  cheap,  beet  pulp  may  be  fed  profitably  for  fat- 
tening cattle. 

Straw. — Flax  straw,  when  flaxseed  is  present,  may  be  used  in 
fattening  cattle.  Oat  straw  is  sometimes  profitably  utilized  for 
supplying  half  the  roughage.  If  hay  is  available  it  is  perhaps 
better  to  feed  the  hay.  Wheat  straw  has  been  found  to  be  un- 
satisfactory because  as  much  energy  is  expended  in  preparing  it 


FEED  AND  CARE;  OF  FATTENING  CATTLE  211 

for  digestion  as  is  digested.  Barley  and  rye  straw  do  not  fur- 
nish sufficient  nutriment  to  warrant  their  use. 

Molasses. — When  the  price  of  this  feed  is  low  it  may  be  used 
to  furnish  part  of  the  carbohydrates  of  a  ration.  On  account  of 
its  increasing  price  it  is  not  within  the  reach  of  many  of  our 
feeders. 

Kaffir  Corn  may  be  successfully  fed  in  the  arid  regions  where 
corn  is  not  profitably  grown,  for  feeding  steers.  The  Kansas 
Experiment  Station  found  that  Kaffir  corn  was  a  little  below 
corn  in  feeding  value.  Where  Kaffir  corn  is  available,  the 
stover  may  be  fed  as  is  practiced  in  feeding  corn.  Kaffir  corn 
should  be  ground  or  soaked  before  feeding  because  of  the  hard- 
ness of  the  grains. 

Sorghum  Hay  is  sometimes  used  to  furnish  roughage  in  feed- 
ing steers.  The  smaller  the  stems,  the  more  suitable  is  this 
feed. 

Leguminous  Hays. — Alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea,  soy  bean,  etc., 
may  often  be  used  to  advantage  in  furnishing  the  greater  part 
of  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  a  fattening  ration.  It  is  often 
very  profitable  to  utilize  these  hays  in  this  way.  Of  course  the 
market  value  will  influence  the  extent  of  their  use. 

Grass  Hays. — Most  of  the  grass  hays  are  suitable  for  fatten- 
ing cattle.  When  corn  stover  is  available  it  is  cheaper  to  feed 
the  stover  and  sell  or  save  the  hay  for  other  live  stock.  Some- 
times a  part  of  the  roughage  may  be  profitably  supplied  in  the 
form  of  hay.  In  Western  sections  prairie  hay  is  often  cheap 
and  can  most  profitably  be  utilized  as  roughage  for  fattening 
cattle.  Timothy  hay  is  more  profitable  to  sell  than  to  feed  cat- 
tle at  the  present  market  value.  It  is  low  in  digestible  nutrients 
and  cattle  cannot  use  it  economically  at  the  present  price  it  car- 
ries. 

Oats  is  sometimes  used  in  fattening  cattle.  It  is  not  high 
enough  in  carbohydrates  to  furnish  the  whole  of  the  grain  and 
should  be  supplemented  with  corn.  The  market  value  often 
makes  the  use  of  oats  unprofitable. 

Wheat. — Ground  wheat  is  about  equal  to  corn  for  fattening 
purposes.  On  account  of  its  stickiness,  bran,  oil  meal  or  some 


212      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

other  concentrate  helps  with  this  feed.  The  price  of  wheat  will 
not  always  permit  its  use,  but  when  it  sells  for  the  same  price 
as  corn  it  may  be  fed.  ' 

Barley  should  always  be  ground  before  being  fed.  It  is  per- 
haps a  little  below  corn  for  fattening  value  and  not  so  well  liked. 
When  accompanied  with  corn  is  perhaps  the  better  way  of  feed- 
ing it. 

Summer  Pasturing. — Cattle  fed  on  grain  and  hay  during  the 
winter  cannot  be  pastured  on  green  grass  entirely  without  caus- 
ing shrinkage.  For  this  reason  some  farmers  make  the  change 
from  hay  to  grass  gradually.  There  are  two  methods  used  in 
turning  steers  to  grass.  One  is  to  wait  until  the  grass  gets  a 
good  growth  and  accustom  the  steers  to  the  change  by  allowing 
them  a  few  hours  a  day  on  pasture,  gradually  increasing  the 
period  until  they  become  used  to  it  By  following  this  method 
the  heavy  feeding  of  grain  is  still  followed  and  may  be  reduced 
when  the  cattle  are  on  full  pasture. 

Another  method  is  to  turn  the  cattle  to  pasture  when  the 
first  blades  appear.  By  doing  this  the  cattle  cannot  gorge  them- 
selves with  grass  and  by  the  time  the  grass  is  abundant  the  cat- 
tle will  be  accustomed  to  it.  The  objection  to  this  method  of 
turning  to  pasture  is  that  the  grass  does  not  have  a  chance  to 
get  a  good  start  because  of  the  continual  cropping. 

Size  of  Pasture. — Most  American  feeders  prefer  one  large 
pasture  to  several  small  pastures.  One  large  pasture  does  away 
with  the  trouble  of  changing  the  steers,  offers  a  greater  variety 
of  grasses  for  grazing,  and  gives  the  animals  more  freedom  and 
contentment. 

Grain  on  Grass. — The  kind  of  grain  to  feed  on  grass  depends 
upon  the  grasses  that  make  up  the  pasture.  If  clovers,  alfalfa, 
or  other  nitrogenous  legumes  predominate,  corn  may  make  up 
the  entire  grain  portion.  If  timothy,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  mead- 
ow fescue,  or  other  grasses  relatively  high  in  carbohydrates  are 
abundant,  a  little  oil  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  gluten  feed,  gluten 
meal,  etc.,  should  be  mixed  with  the  corn  for  the  best  results. 
Cattle  fed  in  this  way  should  be  ready  for  market  in  the  sum- 
mer. 


AND  CARE  OF  FATTENING  CATTLE          213 

Preparing  for  the  Fall  Market. — When  cattle  are  to  be  mar- 
keted in  the  fall  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  grain  in  the  early 
summer.  In  the  fall  when  the  corn  is  ripe,  shocked  or  snapped 
corn  may  be  distributed  over  the  pasture  or  fed  in  a  rack  in  the 
field.  It  is  desirable  to  feed  a  small  quantity,  3  to  4  Ibs.,  of 
corn  at  first,  gradually  increasing  to  a  full  feed  of  15  Ibs.  a 
day.  The  cattle  may  be  fed  in  this  way  until  ready  for  market 
which  will  usually  be  sometime  before  the  winter  sets  in.  An 
addition  of  a  protein  concentrate  is  desirable  in  this  system 
of  fattening. 

Water  and  Salt. — A  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water  should  be 
supplied  to  cattle  in  the  lot  twice  a  day.  In  pastures  a  good 
spring  will  often  furnish  the  water  for  range  feeders.  In  cold 
weather  it  is  beneficial  to  take  the  chill  from  water  with  some 
form  of  heater  to  cause  cattle  to  drink  enough  water. 

As  with  dairy  cattle,  rock  salt  or  pulverized  salt  should  be 
placed  in  a  sheltered  box  in  the  feed  lot.  When  the  steers  are 
kept  in  barns  or  feed  lots,  ^  to  1^2  ounces  a  day  will  be  enough. 
Some  feeders  add  common  salt  to  the  grain  but  it  is  necessary 
not  to  supply  too  much  and  make  the  feed  unpalatable. 

Shelter. — In  the  summer  when  the  flies  are  troublesome  fat- 
tening cattle  often  fail  to  gain  unless  they  are  taken  to  some 
dark,  cool  enclosure  for  a  short  time  each  day  during  the  worst 
periods  and  fed  some  grain.  Every  pasture  should  have  some 
trees  to  furnish  shade.  When  cattle  are  fattened  for  the  fall 
market  a  shelter  should  be  provided  in  the  pasture  to  protect  the 
cattle  during  the  cold  fall  rains. 

Bedding  induces  the  cattle  to  rest  when  they  are  kept  in  a 
feed  lot  or  barn.  Often  a  feed  lot  becomes  muddy  and  a  liberal 
supply  of  straw  as  bedding  provides  comfort  and  contentment. 

Rations  for  Fattening  Cattle. — There  are  many  rations  that 
may  be  computed  for  fattening  cattle.  The  feeder  should  aim  to 
utilize  the  cheap  coarser  feeds,  by-products  and  wastes.  By  so 
doing,  feed  stuffs  that  ordinarily  would  go  to  waste  or  bring 
low  prices  on  the  market,  may  be  profitably  converted  into  beef. 
The  amount  of  feed  in  a  fattening  ration  will  depend  upon  the 
age,  weight,  appetite  and  capacity  of  the  animal.  A  feeder  must 


214      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

use  his  judgment  and  regard  the  fattening  standards  merely  as 
guides. 

Suggestion: — Make   a   list   of    feeds   that   could  be  profitably 

fed  in  fattening  cattle  in  your  section  of  the  country.  Compute 


Fig.  16. — A  shorthorn  bull — after  Good. 


some  cheap  rations  from  these  feeds.  What  differences  would 
be.  made  in  feeding  cattle  during  the  different  periods  of  fatten- 
ing? What  could  be  done  to  economize  an  animal's  food  dur- 
ing cold  weather? 


SECTION  XXXI. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES. 

Requirements. — A  horse  or  mule  requires  digestible  nutrients 
to  furnish  the  energy  required  for  walking,  pulling  loads,  trot- 
ting, etc.,  and  for  the  repair  of  the  tissues.  The  degree  of  work 
determines  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  needed.  A  horse 
or  mule  doing  light,  medium  or  heavy  work  will  require  differ- 
ent amounts  and  proportions  of  digestible  nutrients.  See  Table 
II. 

According  to  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  Bui.  99,  the 
requirements  of  food  for  horses  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

k'i.  The  amount  of  food  required  is  proportional  to  the  amount 
of  work  performed. 

"2.  The  amount  of  food  required  is  also  proportional  to  the 
speed  with  which  work  is  done. 

"3.  More  energy  and  consequently  more  food  are  required 
by  a  horse  when  drawing  a  load  at  a  trot,  than  at  a  walk. 

"4.  Worry,  confusion,  fast  driving  and  much  stopping,  sudden, 
short  and  severe  labor,  all  consume  much  energy  and  require 
extra  food. 

"5.  Generally  speaking  it  is  believed  that  truck  horses  draw- 
ing heavy  loads  slowly  over  good  roads,  require  less  food  than 
express  or  cab  horses. 

"6.  Horses  doing  severe  work  require  more  protein  than  those 
engaged  in  light  work. 

"7.  The  proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  (nutritive 
ratio)  required  by  horses  doing  moderate  work  should  be  about 
i  :  7  or  8,  and  for  horses  doing  heavy  work  as  I  :  5  or  6." 

It  has  been  previously  remarked  that  a  horse  or  mule  cannot 
consume  as  much  roughage  as  ruminants.  The  stomach  of  a 
horse  is  small  and  10  to  14  Ibs.  of  roughage  is  enough  for  a 
day's  ration. 

Oats  is  the  best  grain  for  horses.  This  feed  is  used  to  a  large 
extent  in  this  country.  The  high  cost  of  oats  has  sometimes 
induced  feeders  to  substitute  other  feeds.  Oats  may  make  up 


2l6      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

the  whole  grain  portion  of  the  ration,  or  it  may  be  used  with 
corn,  wheat,  bran,  barley  and  similar  feeds. 

There  is  no  food  that  will  take  the  place  of  oats  for  horses. 
The  presence  of  the  hull  makes  the  feed  light  enough  for  the 
digestive  juices  to  permeate  freely.  Oats  should  be  ground  for 
horses  with  poor  teeth.  Oats  is  a  well  balanced  feed. 

Barley  is  sometimes  mixed  with  oats,  or  fed  alone.  On  the 
Pacific  slope,  barley  is  fed  a  great  deal  to  horses.  Crushing  or 
grinding  barley  helps  in  the  mastication.  Sometimes  linseed 
meal  or  wheat  bran  is  mixed  with  barley  when  fed  to  horses. 

Wheat. — Ground  wheat,  mixed  with  oats  or  bran,  is  sometimes 
used  as  horse  feed.  Wheat  requires  some  bulky  feed  to  supple- 
ment it,  because  when  fed  alone  it  becomes  sticky  in  the  mouth. 
The  market  value  of  wheat  generally  prohibits  its  use  as  a  horse 
feed. 

Corn  is  fed  extensively  in  the  South  and  West.  It  is  fed  on 
the  ear,  shelled,  or  ground  fine.  Corn  and  cob  meal  because 
of  its  bulk  is  better  for  horses  than  corn  meal  when  fed  alone. 
When  corn  meal  is  fed  it  should  be  diluted  with  some  bulky 
feed  like  wheat  bran.  Corn  is  more  of  a  fattening  feed  than 
oats  and  it  causes  the  animal  to  sweat  freely,  but  may  be  used 
to  good  advantage  as  part  of  a  ration.  Corn  is  a  very  satisfac- 
tory feed  in  cold  weather  for  horses  because  of  its  heat  pro- 
ducing power.  Corn  runs  low  in  ash  and  protein  and  must  be 
supplemented  with  feeds  running  high  in  these  constituents. 

Kaffir  Corn. — When  this  feed  is  ground  it  may  be  used  for 
horses.  This  feed  is  not  as  valuable  as  corn  but  may  be  often 
profitably  fed  in  semi-arid  sections  where  corn  cannot  be  grown 
successfully. 

Cotton-Seed  Meal. — As  much  as  2  Ibs.  of  this  feed  per  day 
may  be  fed  to  a  horse  or  mule  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  doing  hard 
work.  It  is  not  desirable  to  feed  too  much  cotton-seed  meal  to 
horses  although  a  moderate  daily  amount,  I  to  2  Ibs.,  mixed 
with  other  grains,  seems  to  give  good  results.  There  is  a  great 
variation  in  the  chemical  composition  of  cotton-seed  meal  as 
manufactured  and  the  feeder  should  try  to  secure  meal  carry- 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    HORSES 


ing  40  per  cent,  protein,  as  the  high  grade  meals  are  usually 
cheaper  per  unit  of  protein. 

Linseed  Meal,  or  oil  meal,  may  be  used  to  supply  some  of  the 
protein  of  the  grain  ration.  One-fourth  to  one  pound  per  day 
is  generally  ample. 

Dried  Brewers'  Grains.  —  Experiments  have  shown  this  product 
to  be  a  more  economical  feed  for  horses  than  oats  at  the  pres- 
ent prices,  in  some  sections,  and  of  equal  feeding  value.  This 
feed  is  not  as  palatable  as  oats  and  corn  but  may  be  successfully 
fed  with  mixtures  as  bran  and  corn. 

Wheat  Bran  is  often  used  to  lighten  rations  composed  of 
heavy  concentrates.  It  has  a  slight  laxative  effect.  Some  feed- 
ers use  it  daily  in  their  rations  while  others  feed  it  two  or 
three  times  a  week. 

Molasses.  —  Cane  and  beet  molasses  are  both  fed  to  furnish 
carbohydrates.  Cane  molasses  is  more  palatable  than  that  from 
the  beet  and  is  used  considerably  in  feeding  horses  in  some  sec- 
tions. The  amount  of  cane  molasses  to  feed  per  day  depends 
upon  the  feeds  that  make  up  the  ration  and  the  market  price 
of  this  carbohydrate  feed.  As  high  as  12  to  14  Ibs.  a  day  have 
been  fed  with  satisfaction  but  a  smaller  quantity,  4  to  8  Ibs., 
is  perhaps  sufficient.  This  feed  is  used  in  sections  of  the  South 
where  it  is  available,  and  is  increasing  in  popularity  in  the  East 
where  it  is  imported  from  tropical  countries,  notably  Porto 
Rico. 

Beet  molasses  is  bitter  and  not  so  palatable  as  cane  molasses 
but  may  be  used  when  mixed  with  other  feeds. 

Timothy  Hay  is  the  best  roughage  for  horses.  The  feeding 
value  is  not  as  high  as  some  other  hays,  but  this  feed  is  usually 
free  from  dust  and  objectionable  weeds,  is  easily  handled  with- 
out loss  of  nutrients,  is  relished,  is  well  cured  and  seems  to  give 
better  results  than  any  other  roughage  on  the  American  market 
for  horses.  On  account  of  its  bulk  it  serves  as  a  good  rough- 
age for  concentrates.  Timothy  hay  is  for  roughage  what  oats 
is  for  grain  in  horse  feeding. 

Clover  Hay  is  not  very  popular  with  horse  feeders.  Often  it 
contains  dust  which  is  objectionable  because  it  is  apt  to  produce 
15 


2l8      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

heaves.  Well  cured  clover  hay,  however,  is  a  good  source  of 
roughage  and  when  used  the  protein  supplied  by  the  grain  should 
be  reduced.  It  is  a  good  complement  of  starchy  concentrates. 
Clover  hay  is  liable  to  lose  some  of  its  leaves  and  other  fine 
parts,  which  are  rich  in  protein,  when  carelessly  handled. 

Alfalfa  Hay. — The  same  objections  are  raised  to  alfalfa  hay 
as  to  clover  hay.  Well  cured  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  successfully  in 
limited  quantities  to  horses.  Corn  or  some  other  carbohydrate 
feed  should  supplement  alfalfa  in  the  ration.  Alfalfa  is  liked 
by  horses  and  they  are  liable  to  eat  too  much  unless  the  supply 
is  limited.  The  Utah  Experiment  Station  has  used  alfalfa  hay 
for  supplying  the  entire  roughage  of  rations  for  horses. 

Oat  Hay  cut  in  the  milk  stage  and  well  cured  furnishes  satis- 
factory roughage  for  moderately  worked  horses. 

Corn  Fodder  is  a  valuable  and  cheap  roughage  for  horses.  It 
may  be  fed  with  corn  and  bran,  corn  and  oats,  and  other  com- 
binations. It  should  be  harvested  before  the  leaves  die  because 
this  part  of  the  corn  plant  is  relished  by  horses.  For  hard  work- 
ing horses  the  stalk  should  be  cut  or  shredded  to  render  masti- 
cation more  easy.  It  may  be  used  to  supply  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  roughage  and  on  account  of  its  cheapness  is  worthy  of 
consideration  by  all  horse  feeders. 

Corn  Silage  may  be  fed  to  idle  horses.  When  used  for  feed- 
ing working  horses  the  amount  should  be  small.  It  is  a  succu- 
lent feed  and  increases  the  appetite.  It  is  somewhat  bulky  for 
the  hard  working  horse. 

Millet  Hay. — The  exclusive  use  of  millet  as  roughage  has  been 
claimed  to  increase  the  action  of  the  kidneys,  produce  lameness 
and  swelling  of  the  joints,  and  render  bones  soft.  For  these 
reasons  millet  is  not  a  safe  feed  for  horses,  although  it  may 
sometimes  furnish  a  part  of  the  ration. 

Grass  Hays. — As  previously  stated,  timothy  hay  is  the  best 
grass  hay  for  horses.  Sometimes  other  grass  hays  are  available 
and  when  well  cured  and  free  from  dust  may  economically  fur- 
nish the  roughage  for  horses. 

Leguminous  Hays. — Besides  alfalfa  and  clover,  other  of  the 
legumes  are  successfully  fed  to  horses.  Cowpea,  lespedeza,  etc. 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    HORSES  2IQ 

may  be  fed  when  free  from  dust  and  well  cured.  The  supple- 
menting of  any  leguminous  hay  with  grain  of  course  offers  a 
chance  of  reducing  the  protein  in  the  grain  portion. 

Straw  in  good  condition  may  be  used  for  idle  horses,  but  when 
fed  to  working  horses  only  a  small  amount  should  be  given.  It 
is  not  so  valuable  as  hay  and  therefore  a  larger  quantity  of  grain 
should  accompany  its  use.  Oat  straw  is  the  best.  Barley,  rice 
and  wheat  straws  may  also  be  utilized  but  rye  straw  is  of  little 
value. 

Cotton-Seed  Hulls. — In  the  South  this  material  is  sometimes 
used  in  feeding  idle  horses.  On  account  of  its  bulk,  a  working 
horse  has  not  time  to  thoroughly  masticate  it,  and  when  fed 
to  hard  working  horses  it  should  be  used  in  small  amounts  to 
furnish  a  part  of  the  roughage.  The  feed  cannot  generally  be 
fed  profitably  at  points  far  from  the  oil  mills. 

Roots  are  not  generally  fed  in  America  to  horses  and  mules. 
Sweet  potatoes  are  sometimes  used  in  the  South  at  the  rate  of 
3  Ibs.  to  i  Ib.  of  grain.  Horses  are  especially  fond  of  carrots. 
They  are  excellent  feed  for  horses  fed  dry  feed.  They  seem  to 
keep  the  digestive  organs  in  good  tone  and  increase  the  appetite. 
Not  over  10  to  15  Ibs.  a  day  should  be  allowed  and  they  should 
be  sliced  or  pulped. 

Watering. — Horses  should  be  watered  regularly  with  pure 
water.  In  the  winter  it  is  good  practice  to  warm  the  water  when 
it  is  too  cold.  Horses  require  different  quantities  of  water  de- 
pending on  the  atmospheric  conditions,  the  work  performed  and 
the  nature  of  the  feed. 

For  horses  of  1,200  Ibs.,  60  to  70  Ibs.  of  water  are  considered 
average  daily  amounts,  with  variations  of  30  to  100  Ibs.  There 
is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  time  to  water  the 
horse.  It  has  been  found  that  it  makes  no  difference  as  long  as 
the  horses  are  watered  regularly  and  with  judgment.  Hard 
working  horses  may  be  watered  to  advantage  before  feeding. 
Some  advocate  watering  before  and  after  feeding. 

Bedding. — It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  horses  to  be  kept 
in  good  condition  should  have  a  good  clean  bed  of  straw  to  rest 
on.  Horses,  like  people,  require  a  comfortable  bed  in  order  to 


120      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


sleep  and  feel  well.     An  unclean  bed  is  liable  to  produce  sickness. 

Salt. — A  little  salt  occasionally  is  required  by  horses  to  keep 
the  body  in  good  tone.  This  may  be  supplied  in  the  rock  or 
pulverized  form. 

Wintering  Working  Horses. — In  the  winter  when  there  is  prac- 
tically no  work  for  the  horse  comfortable  quarters  should  be 
provided.  Coarse  roughage  as  corn  stover,  straw,  etc.  may  be 


Fig.  17.— Draft  type  :  Clydesdale— after  Good. 

used  to  advantage  until  spring  time.  About  6  or  7  weeks  before 
the  working  period  sets  in  the  horses  should  be  given  a  light 
grain  ration  and  exercised  to  fit  them  for  work. 

System  in  Feeding. — Dalrymple  in  Louisiana  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Bui.  115,  says: 

"A  feeder  may  have  all  the  information  necessary  concerning 
feeding  standards,  balanced  rations,  nutritive  ratios,  etc.,  and  yet 
he  cannot  possibly  secure  the  maximum  of  good  results  from  the 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    HORSES  221 

possession  of  such  knowledge  unless  he  employs  a  rational  and 
intelligent  system  in  the  feeding  of  his  animals. 

"Animals  under  domestication,  such  as  the  live  stock  of  the 
farm,  and  more  particularly  the  work  horses  and  mules,  are 
living  under  artificial  conditions  in  respect  to  their  feeding,  and 
are  solely  at  the  mercy  of  the  intelligence,  or  otherwise,  of  their 
owners  for  the  manner,  or  system,  in  which  their  food  is  sup- 
plied to  them. 

"Under  'natural  conditions,  the  horse,  or  mule,  owing  to  the 
anatomical  arrangement  of  its  digestive  organs,  and  its  physio- 
logical requirements,  feeds  quite  often,  but  partakes  of  little  at 
a  time.  The  main  reason  for  this  is,  the  relatively  small  capacity 
of  its  stomach — not  more,  perhaps,  than  from  14  to  17  quarts — 
the  short  time  it  takes  for  the  stomach  to  empty  itself,  and  hence 
the  necessity  for  frequent  replenishment. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  most  satisfactory  results,  under  do- 
mestication, or  during  work,  it  is  reasonable  to  presume  that 
the  animal's  natural  method  of  feeding  should  be  approximated 
as  closely  as  practicable.  During  the  working  season  on  the 
plantation  or  farm  this  would  suggest  that  the  day's  ration,  or 
the  amount  of  food  required  by  the  animal  in  twenty-four  hours, 
should  be  divided  into  at  least  three  feeds.  Some  animals  may, 
and  do,  become  habituated  to  a  lesser  number  of  feeds  per  day 
with,  apparently,  satisfactory  results.  But  it  is  a  risky  method, 
because,  instead  of  getting  as  close  as  practicable  to  the  animal's 
natural  way  of  feeding,  it  is  getting  further  away  from  it. 

"After  an  opportunity,  during  the  past  twenty  years,  of  study- 
ing and  observing  the  conditions  under  which  many  of  our  work 
animals  are  fed,  we  have  no  hesitancy  in  saying  that  lack  of 
system  in  feeding  is  responsible  for  the  major  portion  of  the  loss 
of  valuable  animals  from  colic,  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  etc. 

"Many  who  lose  valuable  horses  and  mules  on  the  plantations 
and  farms  from  digestive  troubles  are  wont  to  place  the  blame  on 
the  kind  or  class  of  feed  the  animals  have  been  given;  while,  in 
reality,  the  blame  properly  belongs  to  the  unnatural  and  un- 
intelligent manner  in  which  they  receive  their  feed.  A  properly- 
balanced  ration  of  the  very  best  quality  of  oats,  when  fed  in- 


222      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

telligently  and  systematically,  may  not  induce  a  case  of  colic  dur- 
ing the  natural  lifetime  of  the  animal.  But  if  the  entire  day's  ra- 
tion of  oats  is  fed  at  one  time,  instead  of  its  being  divided  into 
three  parts,  it  is  liable  to  so  derange  the  digestive  apparatus  as  to 
set  up  a  fatal  case  of  flatulent  colic,  because  the  digestive  organs 
in  the  horse  or  mule  are  not  constructed,  nor  prepared,  to 
"handle"  such  an  excessive  quantity  of  food  material  all  at  once. 
In  such  a  case,  are  we  to  blame  the  oats  for  the  trouble,  or  the 
unintelligent  manner  in  which  they  were  fed  to  the  animal? 
And  so  it  is  with  other  kinds  and  classes  of  concentrated  feeds ; 
they  require  system  in  their  administration  to  prevent  indiges- 
tion, colic,  etc.,  and  to  produce  the  best  results  in  the  capacity 
of  the  animal  for  work. 

"A  point  of  very  great  importance  for  the  owner  or  feeder 
to  bear  in  mind,  therefore,  is,  that  an  animal's  food  may  be 
properly  balanced  as  to  its  digestible  nutrients ;  it  may  be  cor- 
rect as  to  quantity  and  nutritive  ratio;  in  fact,  be  perfect  in 
every  particular,  so  far  as  supplying  the  needs  of  the  animal 
is  concerned ;  and  yet,  if  an  intelligent  system  is  not  employed 
in  the  feeding  of  it,  the  otherwise  perfect  requirements  may  be 
altogether  vitiated." 

Rations  for  Horses  and  Mules. — A  few  rations  fed  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  are  given  below.  These  rations  are  given  to 
illustrate  the  several  concentrates  and  roughage  employed  by 
practical  feeders.  Many  combinations  may  be  compounded  into 
balanced  rations  for  horses  and  mules  doing  different  'kinds  of 
work.  Of  course  the  make  up  of  a  ration  is  controlled  by  the 
market  values  of  the  available  feeds.  By  studying  the  text  in 
this  section  the  student  should  have  no  trouble  in  compounding 
rations  for  all  classes  of  horses  and  mules,  no  matter  what 
degree  of  work  they  may  be  required  to  perform.  A  variety  of 
feeds  in  a  ration  is  satisfactory. 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    HORSES  223 

TABLE  OF   RATIONS.1 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  LIVE  WEIGHT  1,200-1,300 
POUNDS — FARM  HORSES. 

6  pounds  gluten  feed         7  pounds  bran  8  pounds  corn 

2  pounds  bran                     8  pounds  corn  4  pounds  linseed  meal 

6  pounds  corn  10  pounds  timothy  hay  10  pounds  timothy  hay 

10  pounds  timothy  hay 

IOWA  EXPERIMENT  STATION — FARM  HORSES. 

I,ive  weight  1,500-1,600  pounds,  heavy  work         X,ive  weight  1,300  pounds,  ordinary  work 
15  pounds  (oats,  corn,  bran,  3:2:1)  Tl/2  pounds  oats 

15  pounds  hay  fjl/2  pounds  corn 

10  pounds  oat  straw 

I,ive  weight  1,200  pounds  I^ive  weight  1,300  pounds,  severe  work 

6  pounds  oats  5  pounds  oats          9  pounds  oats 
4  pounds  corn          5  pounds  corn          6  pounds  corn 

2  pounds  bran          2  pounds  bran        10  pounds  oat  straw 
12  pounds  hay         12  pounds  hay 

CALIFORNIA  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  LIVE  WEIGHT  1,000  POUNDS 

7  pounds  crushed  barley  7  pounds  cracked  corn 

11  pounds  wheat  hay  12  pounds  barley  hay 

12  pounds  alfalfa  hay  10  pounds  alfalfa  hay 


TRUCK  HORSES,  LIVE  WEIGHT  1,500  POUNDS,  SEVERE  WORK 
15-20  pounds  oats  15-20  pounds  equal  parts  corn  and  oats 

12-20  pounds  hay  12-20  pounds  hay 

ARMY  HORSES,  LIVE  WEIGHT  1,100  POUNDS 

12  pounds  oats  12  pounds  corn  12  pounds  barley 

14  pounds  hay  14  pounds  hay  14  pounds  hay 

EXPRESS  HORSES,  LIVE  WEIGHT  1,325  POUNDS 
2  pounds  corn  1.5  pounds  bran 

19  pounds  oats  9.5  pounds  hay 

CARRIAGE  HORSES,  LIVE  WEIGHT  1,050  POUNDS 
10  pounds  oats  12  pounds  hay 

1  Farmers'  Bui.  170. 


224      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Rations  Adapted  from  Various  Sources. — The  following  are  ra- 
tions that  are  being  fed  in  different  sections  of  this  country  and 
represent  practical  rations. 

MODERATE  WORK,  1,000-1,200  POUNDS,  LIVE  WEIGHT 

4  pounds  dried  brewers'  grains  2  pounds  wheat  bran 

4  pounds  wheat  bran  6  pounds  hominy  meal 
3/^z  pounds  corn  4  pounds  oats 

11  pounds  hay  12  pounds  hay 

13  pounds  oats  7  pounds  oats 

12  pounds  hay  7  pounds  corn 

2  pounds  straw  12  pounds  corn  stover 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal3  4  pounds  dried  brewers'  grains 

8  pounds  wheat  bran  8  pounds  oats 

1 6  pounds  cotton-seed  hulls.  10  pounds  hay 

3^  pounds  linseed  meal  2  pounds  wheat  bran 

8  pounds  corn  6  pounds  corn 

10  pounds  hay  6  pounds  gluten  feed 

1 1  pounds  corn  stover 

6  pounds  oats  10  pounds  corn 

5  pounds  barley  15  pounds  corn  silage 

11  pounds  hay  14  pounds  hay 

HEAVY  WORK,  1,000  POUNDS,  LIVE  WEIGHT 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 

7  pounds  shelled  corn  '  10  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal 

6  pounds  molasses  (cane,  blackstrap)  2  pounds  wheat  bran 

12  pounds  cowpea  hay  5  pounds  corn  stover 

12  pounds  mixed   lespedeza  and  crab 
grass  hay 

5  pounds  rice  bran  7  pounds  shelled  corn 

5  pounds  rice  polish  2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  4  pounds  wheat  bran 

5  pounds  molasses  (blackstrap)  5  pounds  molasses  (blackstrap) 

12  pounds  lespedeza  hay  12  pounds  lespedeza   and   crab    grass 

hay 

Suggestion :  Make  a  list  of  concentrates  that  may  replace 
each  other  for  feeding  a  horse.  Why  should  not  a  horse  in  the 
stable  doing  no  work  be  fed  the  same  as  when  working?  What 
will  be  the  result  if  the  horse's  ration  is  not  cut  down  when  idle? 
What  is  the  cheapest  balanced  ration  that  can  be  fed  to  a  horse 
in  your  locality?  How  many  times  a  day  are  the  horses  fed  in 
your  county?  Do  you  think  you  could  improve  upon  the  system 
of  feeding  as  practiced  in  your  town? 

1  Sales  stable  horses  and  mules. 


SECTION  XXXII. 


FEED  AND  CAKE  OF  SHEEP. 

Requirements. — The  natural  food  of  sheep  is  plants.  They 
have  four  stomachs  as  is  the  case  with  cattle  and  therefore  they 
are  able  to  consume  comparatively  large  quantities  of  roughage. 
They  seem  to  be  able  to  digest  and  assimilate  the  nutrients  in 
roughage  quite  completely  as  is  noticed  by  the  fineness  of  the 


Fig.  18.— Wool  type. 

particles  in  their  manure.  The  requirements  of  sheep  are  some- 
what similar  to  the  requirements  of  cattle.  Sheep  require  a  little 
more  protein  per  pound  of  live  weight  than  cattle,  perhaps  be- 
cause of  wool  production.  Fattening  lambs  also  require  protein 
to  produce  growth.  As  a  rule  sheep  require  more  digestible 
nutrients  per  pound  live  weight  and  make  larger  gains  per  unit 
of  digestible  nutrients  than  steers. 

Weed  Destroyers. — Sheep  may  be  used  to  destroy  weeds  in  pas- 
tures and  are  sometimes  called  weed  destroyers.     When  grazing 


226      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND 

is  scant  sheep  crop  the  grass  very  close  to  the  ground  and  some- 
times injure  pastures  in  this  way,  but  when  good  pasturage  is 
allowed  them  no  injury  is  done.  Sheep  will  eat  weeds  that 
other  classes  of  live-stock  refuse.  By  turning  a  flock  of  sheep  on  a 
pasture  containing  noxious  weeds,  the  pasture  is  improved  by  the 
destruction  of  such  weeds  and  the  land  is  made  richer  and  better, 
and  the  pasture  becomes  covered  with  a  smooth  growth  of  grass. 

Pasturing. — In  the  spring  when  the  grass  begins  to  come  up 
the  ewes  and  lambs  should  be  put  on  pasture  for  a  few  hours  a 
day,  gradually  lengthening  the  period  until  they  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  change  from  dry  to  green  feed.  Alfalfa,  clover, 
rape,  and  rape  and  corn,  make  fine  pastures  for  sheep. 

Alfalfa  Pasture. — By  pasturing  on  alfalfa  in  the  fall  after  two 
or  three  cuttings  have  been  harvested  good  gains  may  be  made 
for  preparing  lambs  for  the  early  winter  market.  Good  gains 
are  made  on  alfalfa  alone  but  the  addition  of  shelled  corn  in- 
creases the  rapidity  of  gain.  Alfalfa  is  nitrogenous  in  character 
and  corn  makes  an  excellent  grain  to  feed  with  it.  In  feeding 
corn  a  little  should  be  supplied  at  first,  y\  of  a  pound,  and 
gradually  increased  until  I  pound  a  day  is  supplied.  When  oats 
and  bran  are  cheap  they  may  be  fed  in  place  of  some  of  the  corn. 

Clover  Pasture. — After  the  hay  has  been  harvested  and  the 
second  growth  has  a  good  stand  the  crop  may  be  pastured  by 
lambs.  As  with  alfalfa  grain  should  be  supplied  lambs  that  are 
to  be  sold  in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter. 

Rape  Pasture. — This  plant  is  becoming  popular  for  pasturing 
sheep.  It  may  be  pastured  the  whole  summer  or  for  preparing 
lambs  for  fall  shipment.  Sometimes  it  is  cut  green  and  fed  in 
racks.  The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  considers  rape  as 
worth  $14.48  to  $20  per  acre  depending  on  the  season.  As 
with  alfalfa  and  clover,  grain  is  desirable  for  preparing  lambs 
for  the  fall  market.  On  account  of  the  fondness  sheep  have 
for  alfalfa  and  rape  they  sometimes  eat  too  much  when  first 
turned  to  pasture  and  become  bloated.  If  fed  some  hay  and 
turned  to  pasture  partly  filled,  bloating  should  not  take  place. 

Rape  and  Corn. — In  the  West  rape  is  sometimes  drilled  between 
the  rows  of  corn,  when  the  corn  is  laid  by.  When  the  corn  is 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SHEEP  227 

mature,  the  lambs  are  turned  into  the  field  and  allowed  to  eat 
both  crops.  In  this  way  many  of  the  lambs  are  fattened  quickly. 
The  lambs  should  be  watched  and  as  soon  as  they  become  fat 
they  should  be  taken  from  the  pasture.  Sometimes  a  few  lambs 
have  to  be  finished  in  the  feed  lot. 

Wintering  Fattening  Quarters. — Sheep  because  of  their  heavy 
coat  of  wool  do  not  require  as  warm  quarters  as  cattle.  There- 
fore a  shelter  should  be  provided  that  offers  plenty  of  fresh 
air  and  protection  from  severe  weather.  A  southern  exposure 
is  to  be  preferred.  Plenty  of  bedding-  is  desirable  which  should 
be  renewed  and  supplied  in  sufficient  quantities  to  keep  the 
animals  comfortable.  The  quarters  should  be  well  drained  and 
kept  as  dry  as  possible  to  prevent  disease  such  as  foot  rot. 

Feeding  Racks. — The  roughage  and  grain  should  be  supplied 
daily  and  separately.  The  hay  should  be  placed  in  racks  large 
enough  so  that  all  the  sheep  may  feed  at  the  same  time.  It 
should  only  be  furnished  in  quantities  sufficient  for  a  feed  as 
sheep  do  not  relish  hay  that  remains  in  the  hayrack.  Grain 
should  be  placed  in  troughs  wide  enough  so  that  the  feed  can- 
not be  eaten  rapidly.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  providing 
a  wide  bottom  to  the  grain  trough  thus  distributing  the  grain. 
As  with  hay  only  grain  enough  for  a  feed  should,  be  given. 

Salt. — Sheep  require  salt  and  there  should  always  be  a  sup- 
ply on  hand.  This  may  be  furnished  by  nailing  several  boxes 
about  the  feed  lot  or  by  a  separate  trough  which  should  be  kept 
for  this  purpose. 

Water. — Sheep  do  not  drink  as  much  water  as  other  classes 
of  live-stock.  The  amount  of  water  consumed  varies  with  the 
nature  of  the  feed  and  temperature.  From  4  to  6  quarts  daily 
are  considered  average  amounts.  A  supply  of  pure  fresh  water 
in  suitable  watering  troughs  should  be  in  the  feed  lot. 

Fattening  Winter  Lambs. — When  the  lamps  are  taken  from  the 
pasture  to  the  feed  lot  only  a  moderate  amount  of  grain  should 
be  given.  This  may  be  increased  gradually  until  they  are  on 
a  full  ration.  The  kind  of  roughage  will  determine  the  amount 
and  character  of  grain  to  use.  Should  straw,  corn  stover,  or 
grass  hay  be  the  roughage,  a  protein  concentrate  must  be  pro- 


228      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

vided  as  part  of  the  grain  ration.  If  alfalfa,  clover,  or  some 
other  nitrogenous  hay  be  the  roughage,  shelled  corn  alone  may 
supply  the  grain.  It  is  not  necessary  to  grind  grain  for  sheep, 
because  they  are  so  constructed  that  they  can  easily  masticate 
hard  grains.  When  their  teeth  become  poor  it  is  best  to  fatten 
them  on  ground  grains  and  market  them. 

Dorset  the  Best  Breed  for  Hot-House  Lambs. — In  the  East  many 
fattened  lambs  are  sold  at  fancy  prices  at  the  age  of  about  3 


Fig.  19.— Dorset  ewes-after  Wing. 

months  for  February  trade.  These  lambs  are  called  hot-house 
lambs  or  winter  lambs  and  usually  weigh  about  45  Ibs.  The 
Dorset  is  considered  the  best  breed  for  supplying  early  lambs, 
because  of  the  hereditary  tendency  towards  liberal  milk  pro- 
duction which  fattens  lambs  early.  The  Dorset-Merino  cross- 
breed and  Hampshire  are  also  used  for  producing  hot-house 
lambs,  the  former  being  more  desirable  because  of  heavier  milk 
production. 

It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  fatten  lambs  for  the  spring  and 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF   SHEEP  229 

fall  markets  than  for  summer  trade.  Lambs  gain  more  per 
pound  of  feed  than  mature  sheep  and  there  is  more  money  made 
in  fattening  lambs  than  mature  sheep. 

Corn  is  the  best  fattening  feed  for  lambs.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  about  500  Ibs.  of  corn  and  400  Ibs.  of  clover  hay 
produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain  in  live  weight.  Shelled  corn  is  the 
form  in  which  this  material  is  utilized  for  sheep.  The  amount 
of  shelled  corn  in  a  ration  depends  upon  the  character  of  the 
roughage  and  the  market  value  of  corn. 

Shock  Corn. — In  some  sections  the  whole  stalk  of  corn  is  fed 
to  sheep.  Enough  shocked  corn  for  a  day's  ration  is  placed  in 
the  feed  rack.  The  lambs  eat  the  grain,  leaves,  and  more  ten- 
der parts  of  the  stalk.  Some  nitrogenous  roughage  as  alfalfa, 
clover,  cowpea,  etc.,  makes  an  excellent  fattening  food  with 
shocked  corn.  If  nitrogenous  hay  is  not  available  some  pro- 
tein concentrate  should  be  used. 

Oats  produce  growth  in  lambs  and  for  a  fattening  ration  corn 
should  be  added.  It  is  not  always  profitable  to  feed  oats  but 
this  is  an  excellent  feed  when  the  market  price  is  low. 

Barley  is  often  fed  in  sections  where  corn  is  hard  to  grow. 
It  may  be  used  in  fattening  lambs.  Barley  is  not  as  valuable 
as  corn  for  sheep  feeding  but  may  be  fed  unground  with  other 
feeds. 

Wheat  is  not  as  good  as  corn  for  fattening  and  an  addition 
of  corn  helps  a  ration'  containing  wheat.  Wheat  is  a  better 
feed  for  producing  growth  than  corn  because  of  its  higher  con- 
tent of  protein. 

Wheat  Screenings  may  often  be  fed  at  a  profit  to  sheep. 
This  material  contains  shrunken  grains  of  wheat,  weed  seeds 
and  other  wastes  obtained  in  preparing  wheat,  as  it  comes  from 
the  farm,  for  manufacturing  flour.  This  feed  is  usually  sold 
at  a  low  price  and  sheep  seem  to  be  fond  of  it.  The  feeding 
value  of  this  by-product  is  variable. 

Wheat  Bran  is  not  a  profitable  sheep  feed.  It  is  too  bulky 
for  so  small  an  animal  and  does  not  possess  sufficient  fattening 
qualities  to  be  of  material  value  for  fattening  lambs.  It  is 
sometimes  fed  in  small  quantities  mixed  with  other  grains. 


230      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Speltz  or  Emmer  grows  well  in  semi-arid  regions  and  it  has 
about  the  same  composition  as  barley.  Alfalfa  hay  fed  with 
speltz  makes  a  good  sheep  feed.  The  Colorado  Experiment  Sta- 
tion got  better  returns  by  feeding  speltz  than  barley  and  found 
it  to  be  as  valuable  as  corn  in  that  section.  The  South  Dakota 
Experiment  Station  found  barley  to  be  more  'valuable  than 
speltz  and  a  mixture  of  barley  or  corn  and  speltz  to  be  better 
than  speltz  alone. 

Protein  Concentrates. — Linseed  meal,  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed 
and  cotton-seed  meal  may  often  be  used  in  rations  deficient  in 
protein.  When  grass  hay,  stover,  etc.,  are  used  as  roughage 
a  mixture  of  a  protein  concentrate  with  shelled  corn  gives 
good  results.  The  proportion  of  protein  concentrate  to  corn 
or  other  carbohydrate  concentrate  should  depend  to  some  ex- 
tent on  the  prices  of  these  grains,  although  too  large  a  propor- 
tion of  protein  concentrate  should  be  avoided. 

Protein  Roughage. — Clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpea  hays  are  suit- 
able roughage  to  supplement  corn  in  completing  a  sheep  ration. 
These  crops  can  be  grown  on  the  farm  and  the  necessary  pro- 
tein for  the  growth  and  repair  of  the  animal  body  may  be  sup- 
plied much  more  cheaply  than  from  protein  concentrates.  Should 
the  supply  of  protein  roughage  be  limited  it  could  be  used  with 
straw,  corn  stover  or  grass  hay.  Some  protein  concentrate 
would  be  necessary  under  such  conditions  but  not  so  much  as  if 
no  protein  roughage  were  utilized. 

Cotton-Seed  Hulls  are  fed  to  sheep  in  sections  near  oil  mills. 
This  feed  makes  a  good  roughage  for  sheep  when  the  price  is 
low. 

Corn  Leaves  are  eaten  by  sheep  with  great  relish.  They  are 
not  so  valuable  as  the  leguminous  hays.  Sheep  do  not  eat  the 
coarser  parts  of  the  corn  stalk  very  much  even  when  shredded 
or  ground. 

Corn  Silage  fed  in  limited  quantities  tends  to  keep  sheep  in 
good  health  and  is  excellent  during  the  early  period  of  fatten- 
ing. It  would  not  pay  to  build  a  silo  just  to  furnish  ensilage  to 
sheep  but  on  dairy  farms  the  available  silage  may  be  furnished 
to  lambs  in  daily  amounts  of  I  to  2  Ibs.  together  with  about 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SHEEP  231 

y*  to  i  lb.  of  dry  roughage.  As  corn  silage  contains  some 
grain,  the  dry  grain  may  be  reduced  when  it  is  fed. 

Grass  Hays. — Lambs  fed  on  grass  hays  should  receive  some 
protein  concentrate  to  balance  the  ration.  Most  of  the  grass 
hays  are  suitable.  Millet  hay  is  not  favored  by  sheep  feeders 
because  it  sometimes  produces  scours. 

Roots  like  silage  furnish  succulence,  keep  the  digestive  tract 
in  good  condition,  and  increase  the  appetite.  In  the  European 
countries  and  Canada  roots  are  used  a  great  deal  in  feeding 
sheep.  The  feeding  of  roots  in  the  United  States  is  not  as 
profitable  as  feeding  silage  in  sections  where  corn  may  be  grown 
extensively.  In  the  South  it  ought  to  prove  profitable  to  raise 
roots  in  the  winter  for  sheep  feeding,  as  the  land  is  often  idle 
during  the  winter  and  roots  are  off  the  land  in  time  to  plant 
the  summer  crops.  Some  dry  roughage  should  be  fed  with 
roots.  Roots  are  especially  desirable  during  seasons  when  sheep 
are  off  from  pasture.  Mangels  and  sugar  beets  are  popular 
roots  for  feeding  sheep.  Two  to  4  Ibs.  a  day  are  sufficient. 

Wet  Beet  Pulp  may  be  utilized  at  points  near  sugar  factories. 
The  laxative  effect  of  beet  pulp  may  be  eliminated  by  using 
a  little  dry  roughage  as  straw  or  stover.  On  account  of  the 
large  amount  of  water  in  beet  pulp  it  is  not  desirable  in  large 
quantities  when  finishing  lambs. 

Dried  Beet  Pulp  is  a  fattening  food  suitable  for  sheep.  The 
market  price  of  this  feed  will  determine  whether  or  not  it 
can  be  profitably  used.  It  is  not  as  valuable  as  corn. 

Straw. — When  other  roughage  is  scarce,  straw  may  be  fed  as 
part  of  the  roughage.  Straw  is  inferior  to  hay  as  feed  and 
when  other  roughage  is  available  straw  is  undesirable.  Some- 
times a  feeder  may  use  straw  entirely  to  furnish  roughage,  in 
which  case  the  grain  must  be  increased  to  balance  the  ration. 
Oat  straw  is  better  than  wheat,  rye,  or  barley  straw. 

Feeding  Period,  Rate  of  Gain,  Etc. — Lambs  fed  grain  on  pas- 
ture should  be  ready  for  market  in  5  to  8  weeks  after  being 
placed  in  the  feed  lot.  The  total  feeding  period  for  sheep 
and  lambs  when  preparing  for  market  should  not  last  over 
15  weeks  and  often  in  12  to  14  weeks  they  are  ready.  Lambs 


232     ELEMENTARY  TREATISE:  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


BJIBJIV 

tx.  LOvO    rf^^O  CO 

c 

Z;i3dS 

rOCO    O    O    "-i    rO*>O    "^ 

je 
w 

1 

^oo  nSo  o^52?^ 

3 
d 

Ifl 

H 

0 

t^»^o   O   O   |—  ^O  t^  —  r 
10  r>.                          =^= 

^ 
U 

2 

o 

t^CO  00    OM^  IO 

^   -     ^      • 

a  o  o  o 

3 

IO   t^                                                     ^^= 

I  t  t  ~ 

fc    ft  P.  CL, 
p,  o    o 

|S> 

9-injsBci 

p99S-UO}jO3 

fO  <N   6   O  to    | 
tOCO                 03                 r*i 

DH                *^= 

o  8.  §  8 
ll&^ 

*    £    N    jf 

B"  "  ss  "*• 

H  *H    a;  ^ 

tfj 

li 

3-inisBj 

$    %££  ^B9lU  JIQ 

t^*  rO  VH                 O 

rj-oo    ^            |     O 

lOCO*    O    O  1/2            i     N 
1000                 |            '44 

O    ca    ft  •- 
U  pq  to  <J 

s 

<j 

7      i 

CO    O   t^  ro  O    O 

«N    Tf   O     O  CO    ^f 

& 

Q 

#  os  'u.100 

CO      «                                                             ^^: 

"t/5 

S 

cn 

ajjp 

10  <N    t^CO    O    O 
CN  vO    O    fO  CS    <~O 

5         § 
t-        -4~* 

<U            U 

£ 

O 

$  oS  'uaoo 

0|O^M^^^ 

tc      ft         a; 

8  "...  i 

(2 

a 

rt 

a3AOI3 

TJ-  10  O  >O    rO  O 
rOvO    ^  CO    N    M 

£    *1*T 

C     ^    ^    W 

fe 

O 

a 

^  og  'uao3 

rOCO    O    P-I    1-1    Tf  CO  IO 

§  r  ^-3  § 

°   a§  S  8 

5 

fc 

s 

J3AOID 

fO  T  O  CO    rO^sO 

8    3S-22 

CJ     •*•  _r  V   1 

t/2 

M 
•5 

GO      *"  '                                                             ^&: 

%%  rt    ^    v 

W 

6  §  U  P^ 

g 

w 

M 

w 

Rations  by  lots 

'3    I                ^t-i  bb 

^                            O  t 
.2     <U                         r^^ 

<U    <L>        rQ    o3    OH  o  n_ 

^^       oj'0  S3  PH° 

1  Smith's  Profitable  Stock  Feeding. 

2  Corn,  $14.  20  per  ton;  40  c.  per  bush. 
Wheat,  $17.70  per  ton;  53  c.  per  bush. 
Bran,  $13.75  per  ton. 
Oil  meal,  $25.00  per  ton. 
Clover,  $7.00  per  ton. 

FEED  AND  CARE;  OF   SHEEP 


233 


S^S3J  U3A3S 

rO-CCvO    t^«N    lOO 
^CO    M    O    fO  N    M    "™ 

amaojaSwaAV 

10  r^                   f  *°^ 

rO  rO  M  vO    CN    >-i  CO 

rt  ?t 

x  —  ' 

re  .2 

•S  a  "-.-*"* 

-1    lOCO    —  00    — 

i 

VO  CO                               ^* 

^    ssg^-8 

10 

3 

? 

|| 

JO^OO    -      •    rO^£ 

& 

0 

a 

ci 

a 

|q 

rf         CN  CO  CO    rO  N    r>- 

«r 

0 

S 

5 

a'  -2 

t*i 

e 

10  ?L  °    °    °    ^   "^"^ 

5 
u 

5 

8 

N 

o 

u 

u 

O    i- 

r  a 

S.R 

i 

^     S'^B^IQ 

CN  \O    t^                  O^ 

a 
8 

0 

n 

R 

8« 

tn 

M 
S 

a  ^ 

Jj  £6  'tuoo 
XBH  BJIBJIV 

lOCO    O    O    >-i    N    ^  rO 

* 

,5 

.« 

a" 

*t  2 

<J 

a 

I1! 

^  S  '3?[BO  \IQ 

I0v£5   l^  O         CO 
^t   *>•  O    O   rO  ^* 

5 

< 

i 

^  ° 

ad 

£ 

m 

4,  S6  'uaoo 

T  t>.                              ^ 

a: 

Q 

to 
% 

BJIBJIV 

O  co  r^  tN  co  r-> 

5 

fc 

^Maoo, 

f^CO    O    >-i    IH    IOVO    r*5 

0 
H 

^ 
fc 

S 

BJIBHV 

TO         VO    N  CO 
M    ON  T  ON  CS    IO 

5 

O 

H 

<J 

^ 

)Bdl[A^  pOOQ 

^vg   0   0   M   tovO^g 

S 

p 

BI1BITB 

HI  CO    W    10  lOCO 

{H 

z 

w 

t^  T  O   O   w   T\O   T)- 
Tt"^O                                 ^^ 

S 

2 

• 

i 

£ 

"7 

w 

£U 

H 

W 

Rations  Y>y  lots 

Average  weight  at  the  beginning.  . 
Average  weight  at  the  close  
Daily  gain  
Grain  consumed  per  day  
Hay  consumed  per  day  
Grain  consumed  per  pound  of  gain 
Hay  consumed  per  pound  of  gain  . 
Cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  

1  Smith's  Profitable  Stock  Feeding. 
5  Wheat,  $15.00  per  ton;  45  c.  per 

_o 

'I 
8 

«% 

IT" 

U 

j 

Poor  screenings,  $7.00  per  ton. 

1 

i* 

K, 

y 

"", 

S 

Alfalfa,  $4.00  per  ton. 
Prairie  hay,  $4.00  per  ton. 

16 


234      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

average  about  %  of  a  pound  daily  gain.  According  to  Lawes 
and  Gilbert:  "Sheep  on  good  fattening  food,  such  as  oil  cake 
or  corn,  with  chaff  and  roots,  will  consume  weekly  about  4.75 
Ibs.  oil  cake,  4.75  Ibs.  of  hay,  and  about  70  Ibs.  of  roots,  for 
every  100  Ibs.  of  their  live  weight. 

"When  fed  as  above,  they  will  consume  every  week  about  1/7 
of  their  own  weight  of  the  dry  substance  of  food;  that  is,  after 
deducting  the  moisture  it  contains. 

"Sheep  well  fed  and  under  cover  will  increase  about  2  per 
cent,  upon  their  weight;  that  is  to  say,  100  Ibs.  live  weight  will 
increase  from  1.75  Ibs.  to  2  Ibs.  per  week. 

"To  increase  100  Ibs.  in  live  weight,  sheep  will  consume  about 
225  Ibs.  of  oil  cake,  or  corn,  225  Ibs.  of  hay  (chaff),  and  from 
3,000  to  3,750  Ibs.  of  roots. 

"The  increase  of  a  fattening  sheep  is  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
pound  live  weight  to  eight  or  nine  pounds  of  the  dry  substance 
of  the  food  consumed." 


SECTION  XXXIII. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE. 

Swine  like  horses  have  but  one  stomach,  therefore  they  are  not 
adapted  to  consuming  as  large  quantities  of  roughage  as  the 
ruminants,  cattle  and  sheep.  Grain  is  very  desirable  for  pigs 
and  from  equal  weights  of  such  feed  pigs  will  gain  more  than 


Fig.  20.— Grand  champion  Poland-China  sow — after  Dietrich. 

the  ruminants.  Swine  generally  are  made  to  utilize  the  wastes 
from  the  kitchen  and  the  dairy  and  because  of  the  many  wastes 
that  would  ordinarily  be  thrown  away,  the  raising  of  pork  is 
usually  very  profitable. 

Requirements. — The  requirements  for  pork  production  include 
plenty  of  bone  making  material  (ash)  and  a  fair  supply  of  pro- 
tein. It  was  formerly  customary  to  feed  very  wide  rations 
and  market  the  animals  very  fat  at  the  age  of  about  15  months, 
weighing  300  to  400  Ibs.  Such  hogs  are  suitable  for  the  pack- 
ing houses.  Local  demand  at  present  often  calls  for  pigs  of 


236      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


150  to  250  Ibs.  of  rather  lean  pork,  which  may  be  produced  in 
a  few  months,  the  age  depending  upon  whether  they  are  grain 
or  pasture  fed.  For  lean  pork  a  narrower  nutritive  ratio  is 
required  than  for  fat  pork.  A  nutritive  ratio  of  I  :  6.5  or  7 
is  suitable  for  the  production  of  lean  pork.  As  with  other  ani- 
mals the  gain  in  live  weight  from  feed  is  greater  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  fattening  period  and  so  it  is  more  profitable  to 
market  pigs  when  5  to  8  months  old  than  when  15  months  old. 
This  early  marketing  also  gives  quicker  returns.  The  follow- 
ing table  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding"  illustrates  this  point : 


—  i- 

& 

f 

,2 

n  ^ 

t. 

S 

be 

'a 

M 

'<y 

1 

X 

a 
1 

o  s 

C  OJ 

| 

8 

o 

5s 

«j 

1 

*"«  >> 

33  > 

^•a 

u   ^" 

'ai 

B 

"3 

6 

o 
6 

o 

2  w 
wJJ 

|'] 

Hj   O 

bcwi 

EH, 

ifi 

1 

* 

^ 

fc 

* 

<"© 

&  S 

* 

£ 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

15-  50 

38 

9 

41 

174 

2.23 

5-95 

0.76 

293 

5O-IOO 

78 

13 

100 

417 

3-35 

4.32 

0.83 

4OO 

100-150 

128 

13 

119 

495 

4-79 

3-75 

.10 

437 

150-200 

174 

II 

107 

489 

3-43 

.24 

482 

200-250 

226 

12 

72 

300 

6*57 

2.91 

•33 

498 

250-300 

27I 

8 

.6 

223 

7.40 

2.74 

.46 

300-350 

320 

3 

19 

105 

7-50 

2-35 

.40 

535 

The  average  weight  of  34,400,000  market  hogs  for  the  year 
ending  March  i,  1908  was  226.58  Ibs.,  costing  the  packers  $5.52 
per  100  Ibs.1  This  shows  that  225-230  Ibs.  is  about  the  aver- 
age weight  of  the  market  hog  of  to-day. 

Corn  is  the  most  common  feed  for  swine.  It  is  high  in  car- 
bohydrates and  low  in  protein  and  ash,  and  is  suited  for  the 
quick  production  of  fat. 

Shelled  corn,  corn  meal  and  corn  on  the  cob  are  about  of 
equal  feeding  value  for  swine;  corn  meal  being  perhaps  slightly 
superior.  If  shelled  corn  is  very  hard,  causing  sore  mouths, 
it  should  either  be  soaked  in  water  for  a  day  or  so  or  else  ground 
to  a  meal.  Sometimes  grinding  is  too  expensive  but  is  prefer- 
able when  practicable.  Corn  meal  should  always  be  soaked  with 

1  Coburn,  "  Swine  in  America." 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SWINE  237 

water  just  before  feeding  to  render  it  more  palatable.  Corn 
is  often  profitably  fed  without  the  addition  of  any  other  grain 
when  pigs  |are  on  good  leguminous  pa'sture  or  rape.  The 
amount  of  corn  to  use  in  the  ration  depends  upon  the  age  of 
the  pigs.  Young  pigs  require  more  protein  and  ash,  to  supply 
nutrients  to  furnish  growth,  than  mature  animals.  Corn  alone 
does  not  contain  enough  protein  and  ash  to  supply  the  needs 
of  young  pigs,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  supplement  it  with 
materials  rich  in  protein  and  ash,  and  use  it  in  smaller  propor- 
tions for  young  pigs.  Wood  ashes,  bone  meal,  etc.,  are  often 
fed  pigs  that  are  kept  in  pens,  to  furnish  sufficient  ash  to  form 
strong  bones,  especially  when  corn  is  the  only  grain  fed.  Swine 
on  pasture  do  not  generally  require  to  be  supplied  bone  form- 
ing materials  as  they  secure  an  ample  supply  from  the  pasture. 

Wheat  should  always  be  ground  for  pigs.  It  meets  the  re- 
quirements of  young  pigs  better  than  corn  because  of  its  higher 
percentage  of  protein  and  mineral  compounds.  It  is  consid- 
ered of  equal  feeding  value  to  corn  and  produces  pork  of  fine 
flavor.  When  the  price  is  low  this  feed  is  very  profitable  for 
pork  production.  A  mixture  of  wheat  and  corn  meal  or  wheat 
and  barley,  is  better  than  when  fed  alone.  A  combination  of 
wheat  and  skim  milk  makes  an  excellent  food  for  young  pigs. 
Sometimes  wheat  is  soaked  for  a  day  before  feeding  but  this  is 
not  as  satisfactory  as  wheat  meal.  Experiments  show  an  in- 
crease of  one  pound  gain  from  about  5  Ibs.  of  wheat. 

Wheat  Middlings  or  Shorts  is  a  suitable  feed  for  all  ages  of 
swine.  A  mixture  of  shorts  and  corn,  shorts  and  barley,  or 
shorts  and  skim  milk,  produces  firm  pork.  This  feed  should 
never  compose  the  whole  grain  of  the  ration  as  when  fed  alone 
the  pork  is  liable  to  be  soft.  This  by-product  seems  to  be  es- 
pecially adapted  for  pork  production  and  should  be  used  with 
other  feeds  and  when  the  market  price  will  permit.  For  young 
pigs  middlings  gives  fine  results. 

Wheat  Bran  is  not  adapted  to  young  pigs  because  it  is  too  bulky 
and  coarse  and  contains  too  much  fiber.  It  is  sometimes  fed  in 
small  amounts  to  brood  sows  but  it  is  not  generally  popular. 

Wheat  Screenings  when  cheap  may   sometimes  be  profitably 


238      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

utilized  for  pigs.  The  composition  of  this  material  is  variable. 
It  should  be  soaked  before  feeding. 

Barley  is  considered  the  best  cereal  for  the  production  of 
firm,  well  flavored  pork.  There  are  two  varieties  grown  in  this 
country,  namely,  the  bald  and  common.  The  bald  variety  is 
preferable  because  of  the  smaller  amount  of  hull.  It  should  be 
ground  or  soaked  and  makes  a  good  combination  with  legumin- 
ous hay  and  skim  milk  before  fattening.  A  mixture  of  barley 
and  corn  makes  a  good  fattening  ration  although  sometimes  the 
barley  is  used  alone. 

Rye  is  considered  of  about  equal  feeding  value  to  barley  in 
the  production  of  pork.  It  is  best  to  feed  rye  ground  and  in 
the  form  of  a  slop.  It  should  not  constitute  more  than  Yz  of 
the  ration  as  swine  seem  to  tire  of  it.  An  addition  of  corn  is 
of  material  value  in  furnishing  a  palatable  ration  with  rye. 

Kaffir  Corn, — This  feed  should  be  soaked  or  ground  on  account 
of  its  small  hard  seed.  It  is  not  the  equal  of  corn  meal  for 
fattening.  It  also  has  the  tendency  of  producing  constipation. 
From  experiments  conducted  at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Georgeson  concludes  that:  "Red  Kaffir  corn  meal  did  not 
prove  quite  equal  to  corn  meal  as  a  fattening  food.  A  mixture 
of  %  Kaffir  corn  meal  and  ]/$  soy  bean  meal  produced  excel- 
lent gains.  The  soy  bean  meal  apparently  corrected  the  defects 
of  the  Kaffir  corn  meal  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  mixture 
a  desirable  feed.  A  mixture  of  ^3  corn  meal  and  y$  soy  bean 
meal  gave  slightly  better  results  than  Kaffir  corn  meal  and  soy 
bean  meal.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  is  that 
red  Kaffir  corn  meal  is  not  as  good  a  feed  for  hogs  as  corn 
meal,  but  that  when  either  Kaffir  corn  meal  or  corn  meal  is 
mixed  with  soy  bean  meal  the  results  are  highly  satisfactory." 

Millet  Seed. — Experiments  conducted  at  the  South  Dakota 
Experiment  Station  with  ground  millet  seed  proved  this  feed 
to  be  less  valuable  as  a  feed  for  swine  than  wheat  or  barley. 
Twenty  per  cent,  more  millet  seed  was  required  to  produce  one 
pound  of  gain  than  barley  and  it  seemed  to  produce  a  softer 
pork  than  barley  or  wheat.  Millet  seed  is  relished  by  swine 
and  in  certain  localities  it  should  prove  a  profitable  feed.  It 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SWINE  239 

may  be  fed  with  corn  but  in  such  a  mixture  the  corn  should  pre- 
dominate. 

Oats  give  better  returns  when  fed  ground  or  crushed.  Some- 
times oats  are  soaked  before  feeding.  As  a  general  rule  oats  are 
too  expensive  to  feed  hogs.  They  are  not  satisfactory  for  young 
pigs  on  account  of  their  bulk,  but  may  be  fed  if  the  hulls  are  re- 
moved. A  mixture  of  wheat  and  oats  (when  the  hulls  are 
sifted  out)  forms  a  good  ration  for  growing  pigs.  Oats  are 
inferior  to  corn  for  fattening  and  therefore  should  be  cheaper 
than  corn  to  feed  profitably. 

Canada  Field  Peas  are  rich  in  protein  and  in  sections  where 
they  are  easily  grown  are  a  valuable  hog  feed.  They  should  never 
be  fed  alone.  They  may  be  fed  unground,  ground  or  soaked. 
Mixed  with  corn,  wheat,  barley  or  rye  they  complete  a  good  fat- 
tening ration.  Before  the  fattening  period  they  are  considered 
better  than  corn. 

Linseed  Meal  should  not  form  over  5  per  cent,  of  the  grain 
portion  of  the  ration  as  large  amounts  of  this  feed  seem  objec- 
tionable. As  a  supplement  in  limited  amounts,  it  proves  bene- 
ficial in  that  it  aids  digestion  and  produces  laxativeness. 

Cotton-Seed  Meal  is  not  considered  entirely  safe  as  a  food  for 
swine  when  continually  fed  or  when  supplied  in  large  quantities. 
Bui.  85  of  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  says :  "According 
to  our  experience,  any  economic  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
feeding  this  material  will  be  secured  by  amounts  well  within  the 
danger  limit,  and  that  independent  of  its  effects  on  health.  For 
the  benefit  of  those  who  may  wish  to  take  the  chances  on  feed- 
ing cotton-seed  meal  or  cotton-seed  to  hogs  continuously,  the 
following  allowances  appear  to  be  well  within  the  danger  limit : 

Pigs  under  50  pounds V*  pound  per  day 

Pigs  from  50-75  pounds Vs  pound  per  day 

Pigs  from  75-100  pounds 2/s  pound  per  day 

Pigs  from  100-150  pounds l/2  pound  per  day 

"If  fed  a  full  grain  allowance,  the  dosage  may  be  obtained  by 
properly  proportioning  the  cotton-seed  meal  to  the  other  com- 
ponents of  the  ration,  namely:  one  to  five,  six,  seven,  or  eight, 
according  to  the  stage  of  growth.  A  meal  ration  containing 


240      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

cotton-seed  meal  should  also  contain  at  least  an  equal  amount 
of  wheat  bran  to  supply  bulk.  For  the  remainder,  corn  appears 
to  be  the  only  choice." 

Bui.  78  of  the  Texas  Experiment  Station  says : 

''For  animals  on  heavy  feed,  that  not  more  than  one-fourth 
the  weight  of  the  grain  ration  consists  of  cotton-seed  meal. 

"That  this  feeding  continue  not  more  than  50  days,  or  that  the 
proportion  of  meal  be  reduced  if  feeding  is  to  be  continued 
longer. 

"That  the  meal  be  mixed  with  the  other  feed  and  all  soured  to- 
gether." 

"That  as  much  green  feed  as  possible  be  supplied  to  the  hogs." 

"That  a  close  watch  be  kept  and  the  meal  taken  from  any 
animals  not  eating  or  not  gaining  well. 

"One  pound  of  cotton-seed  meal  to  five  of  corn  furnishes  the 
nutrients  in  the  most  desirable  proportions  for  fattening,  while 
one  or  two  of  corn  are  more  nearly  correct  for  young  stock." 

It  is  understood  that  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture have  been  endeavoring  to  eliminate  the  toxic  or  poisonous 
principle  in  cotton-seed  meal  and  if  they  successfully  accomplish 
this,  it  will  render  this  material  much  safer  and  more  valuable 
for  a  feed  for  animals  of  all  kinds. 

Rice  Polish  is  especially  adapted  for  fattening  hogs.  It  con- 
tains more  protein  than  corn  and  sufficient  carbohydrates  to  make 
it  a  good  fattening  food.  The  Alabama  Experiment  Station 
found  that  373  Ibs.  of  rice  polish  produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain  as 
compared  with  474  Ibs.  of  corn  meal.  Or  78.6  Ibs.  of  rice  polish 
were  equal  to  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal.  This  feed  is  not  generally 
in  the  American  markets  except  in  a  few  sections  and  where  it 
can  be  purchased  at  a  reasonable  price  it  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage  in  fattening  hogs.  The  Louisiana  rice  polish  is  usual- 
ly of  good  quality. 

Rice  Meal. — This  product  is  pure  rice  bran.  The  South  Caro- 
lina Experiment  Station  found  that  rice  meal  was  superior  to 
corn  meal  as  a  fattening  food  for  swine.  The  Massachusetts 
Experiment  Station  found  that  equal  weights  of  corn  meal  and 
rice  meal  when  fed  with  skim  milk  were  of  equal  feeding  value. 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SWINE  241 

This  by-product,  like  rice  polish,  is  hard  to  purchase  at  a  reason- 
able price,  outside  of  certain  localities.  The  experienced  feeder 
of  rice  by-products  should  have  no  difficulty  in  securing  rice  meal 
instead  of  rice  bran  adulterated  with  hulls. 

Packing  House  By-Products. — Digester  tankage  and  dried  blood 
are  fed  to  furnish  protein  to  supplement  corn  in  rations  for  hogs. 
These  by-products  should  be  fed  in  limited  quantities  because 
they  are  very  concentrated.  Tankage  should  not  make  up  more 
than  10  per  cent,  of  a  ration  and  dried  blood  in  quantities 
of  a  tablespoonful  is  sufficient.  These  concentrates  should  be 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  grain  portion  of  the  ration  so  that 
each  pig  will  not  secure  any  more  than  its  share.  For  young 
pigs  these  amounts  should  be  reduced.  The  use  of  these  feeds 
seems  to  shorten  the  fattening  period  and  keep  up  the  appetite. 
It  must  be  understood  that  the  value  of  these  by-products  de- 
pends upon  their  composition  and  quality  which  is  sometimes 
variable. 

Dairy  By-Products. — Skim  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey  are  the 
dairy  by-products  fed  to  swine. 

1.  Skim  milk  may  be  fed  to  swine  of  all  ages.     Experiments 
show  that  3  Ibs.   of  skim  milk  to   I   Ib.  of  meal   give  the  best 
returns.     Skim  milk  develops  strong  bones  and  produces  good 
body  tissue. 

2.  Buttermilk,  when  not  diluted,  has  about  equal  value  to  skim 
milk.     It  is  perhaps  not  so  valuable  as  skim  milk  for  feeding 
young  pigs.     Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are  rich  in  protein  and 
ash,  and  as  corn  meal  is  rather  deficient  in  these  constituents,  they 
are  complementary  fe^rK 

3.  Whey.     The  value  of  this  by-product  for  feeding  depends 
upon  its  source.     Experiments  gave  best  results  when  whey  was 
fed  with  ground  corn,  barley,  rye,  or  wheat.     Whey  is  a  bulky 
food  and  can  be  utilized  to  better  advantage  by  old  than  young 
animals.     According  to  Henry  in  averages  of  results  of  the  Wis- 
consin and  Ontario  Experiment  Stations,  785  Ibs.  of  whey  will 
equal  100  Ibs.  of  grain. 

Molasses. — The  results  of  experiments  in  feeding  hogs  with 
beet  molasses  have  not  been  favorable  for  using  this  by-product 


242      ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

for  swine  feed.  The  large  amount  of  potash  salts  in  the  ash 
of  beet  molasses  is  liable  to  produce  scouring  when  fed  in  other 
than  limited  quantities.  In  Louisiana  cane  molasses  is  fed  to  hogs. 
Hogs  are  extremely  fond  of  it  and  seem  to  thrive  on  it.  The 
writer  believes  a  limited  quantity,  when  the  market  price  is  low, 
will  prove  a  profitable  fattening  food.  Cane  molasses  is  high 
in  digestible  carbohydrates  and  when  corn  is  fed,  the  roughage 
should  be  nitrogenous.  Cane  molasses  is  in  such  demand  by 
manufacturers  of  mixed  feeds,  syrup  mixers,  and  as  a  feed  for 
mules  and  horses,  that  it  is  questionable  whether  it  can  be  used 
by  the  economical  feeder. 

Leguminous  Hays.~~Clover  and  alfalfa  are  excellent  roughage 
to  feed  with  concentrates  as  corn,  barley,  rye,  wheat,  rice  polish, 
etc.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  every  feeder  to  harvest  these  crops 
when  the  stems  are  small  and  tender,  and  prevent  the  loss-  of  the 
leaves  and  finer  parts,  to  furnish  them  in  the  best  condition  for 
hogs.  These  hays  should  be  ground,  scalded  and  added  to  the 
grain  and  fed  about  once  a  day.  These  nitrogenous  hays  are 
not  satisfactory  to  feed  during  the  finishing  period  but  supply 
protein  in  a  cheap  form  for  the  early  periods  of  fattening. 

Peanuts  are  used  a  great  deal  in  the  Gulf  States  to  fatten  hogs. 
The  vines  are  first  harvested  or  grazed  with  cattle  or  sheep  and 
then  the  swine  are  turned  on  to  harvest  the  peanuts.  It  has  been 
found  profitable  to  allow  the  swine  either  a  field  of  corn  or  to 
supply  corn  to  them  while  they  are  on  peanuts,  as  peanuts  alone 
do  not  make  firm  pork.  It  is  estimated  that  an  acre  of  Spanish 
peanuts  will  furnish  sufficient  food  for  8-10  hogs  depending  upon 
the  grain  supplied  and  the  length  of  time  they  are  kept  on  the 
pasture.  Peanuts  are  considered  more  profitable  than  corn  for 
pigs,  as  3  Ibs.  of  peanuts  make  I  Ib.  of  pork,  while  it  takes  5  Ibs. 
of  corn  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 

Roots  are  too  bulky  and  contain  too  much  water  to  be  con- 
sidered favorably  as  fattening  feed.  They  may  be  used  for  brood 
sows'  suckling  pigs  as  they  tend  to  increase  milk  production.  The 
local  conditions  will  determine  whether  to  raise  roots  for  swine 
feeding. 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SWINE 


243 


Corn  Silage  may  be  fed  to  brood  sows'  suckling  pigs  as  this 
feed  exerts  the  same  influence  on  milk  production  as  roots.  On 
farms  where  this  feed  is  available  it  may  be  utilized. 

Following  the  Cattle. — In  those  sections  where  corn  is  exten- 
sively grown  and  fed  to  cattle,  it  is  common  to  have  shotes  weigh- 
ing 90-150  Ibs.  follow  the  cattle  and  glean  the  droppings.  About 


Fig.  21.— Chester  white  sow— after  Plumb. 

15  shotes  are  allowed  to  10  steers.  Sometimes  the  number  of 
shotes  is  increased  when  a  large  amount  of  grain  is  fed  or  scat- 
tered. Two  feeding  lots  are  often  provided  and  the  hogs  are 
turned  into  the  lot  that  the  steers  occupied  the  previous  day.  In 
the  fall  and  early  winter  the  shocked  or  snapped  corn  is  scattered 
about  the  pasture  and  the  steers  eat  all  they  wish.  Considerable 


244      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

grain  is  left  about  and  this  and  whatever  is  undigested  is  eaten 
by  the  hogs.  By  keeping  the  steers  and  hogs  separated,  the  corn 
is  not  trampled  so  badly,  and  the  animals  are  more  contented.  The 
more  shotes  put  on  the  pasture  the  more  grain  must  be  fed.  As 
soon  as  a  hog  becomes  fat  another  should  replace  it.  This 
method  of  feeding  hogs  is  considered  the  cheapest  in  the  corn 
sections.  All  the  gain  from  hogs  so  fattened  is  usually  profit 
because  what  the  steers  waste  and  void  would  ordinarily  be  lost. 
Again  the  land  is  made  richer  by  fattening  cattle  and  hogs  in  this 
way.  Should  more  hogs  be  used  than  there  is  feed  for,  it  is 
necessary  that  some  feed  be  supplied  the  hogs. 

Pasturing. — Pigs  do  well  when  pastured  on  clover,  alfalfa, 
cowpeas,  rape,  field  peas,  barley,  rye,  wheat,  etc.  When  pigs  root 
they  should  be  rung  to  prevent  them  from  injuring  the  plants. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  alfalfa  is  the  best  pasture  crop 
for  pigs.  Feeding  corn  on  pasture  is  profitable  when  corn  is 
cheap  and  the  crop  is  nitrogenous.  On  barley,  rye,  etc.,  a  supple- 
ment of  tankage,  dried  blood,  oil  meal,  or  skim  milk  is  desira- 
ble. In  the  absence  of  corn,  other  grains  as  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  etc.,  may  be  substituted.  The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Sta- 
tion found  rape  superior  to  clover  as  a  pasture  crop  for  swine. 

Wet  Meal  Better  Than  Dry  Meal. — The  experiments  generally 
show  that  larger  gains  were  made  by  feeding  wet  instead  of  dry 
meal  and  that  larger  quantities  were  consumed  of  wet  meal. 

Exercise. — Of  course  the  young  pigs  require  more  exercise 
than  those  that  are  mature.  Exercise  tends  to  keep  away  disease. 
Pigs  on  pasture  or  in  lots  do  better  than  those  in  pens.  Ex- 
ercise seems  beneficial  and  experiments  have  been  conducted  to 
prove  this  point. 

Water. — Fresh  water  should  be  supplied  to  pigs  in  convenient 
and  clean  troughs  or  fountains.  In  winter  the  warming  of  it  is 
beneficial. 

Cleanliness. — In  order  to  keep  swine  in  good  health  the  feeding 
troughs  should  be  kept  clean.  If  dairy  by-products,  slop,  or 
refuse  such  as  swill  are  fed,  it  is  not  long  before  the  feeding  pen 
becomes  filthy  unless  proper  care  is  given  to  it.  In  pens  the 
pigs  should  be  allowed  fresh  clean  bedding  and  the  pens  should 


FEED    AND    CARE    OF    SWINE  245 

be  disinfected  once  in  a  while  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  zenoleum  or  other  disinfectant.  A  dipping  tank  is  ad- 
visable on  every  farm  to  wash  off  those  pigs  that  become  infected 
with  lice  and  so  prevent  the  spread  of  disease.  Many  farmers 
think  that  pigs  ought  to  do  well  when  the  food  becomes  mixed 
with  manure  and  filth,  as  is  the  case  in  filthy  pens,  but  for 
the  greatest  profits  filth  should  be  avoided  and  cleanliness  is 
necessary.  In  clean  pens  pigs  fatten  more  rapidly  and  are 
generally  free  from  disease.  When  kept  in  a  feed  lot  dry 
situations  should  be  selected  and  bedding  provided  to  make  them 
comfortable. 

RATIONS  FOR  FATTENING  SWINE 

Per  1,000  pounds,  live  weight1 

9  pounds  cowpeas  8  pounds  cowpeas 

10  pounds  corn  meal  12  pounds  middlings 

30  pounds  sweet  potatoes  21  pounds  corn 

12  pounds  rice  meal  20  pounds  corn 

22  pounds  corn  40  pounds  middlings 

37  pounds  skim  milk  (gravity) 

RATIONS  FROM  VARIOUS  SOURCES— EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 
Ground  peas         ~\  2  parts  corn  meal 

Ground  barley      >•    equal  parts  I  part  shorts 

Ground  rye  J 

Corn  meal  Shorts 

Bran  Chopped  wheat 

Gluten  meal  Oats 

Skim  milk  or  buttermilk  Bran 

2  parts  corn  meal  Corn  meal  i  part  chopped  wheat 

2  parts  shorts  Gluten  meal  i  part  shorts 

2  parts  oil  meal  Skim  milk  i  part  ground  oats 

4  parts  whole  wheat     Wheat  meal  Corn  meal  2  parts  corn  meal 

i  part  bran  Buttermilk  Wheat  meal          i  part  ground  oats 

i  pound  corn  meal  2  parts  Kaffir  corn  meal 

3  pounds  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  i  part  soy  bean 
Suggestion:  Why  is  it  that  the  gains  made  by  the  young  pig 
during  the  first  months  of  life,  are  more  profitable  than  later 
gains  ?  Have  the  student  make  suitable  rations  for  hogs  for  the 
different  periods  of  fattening.  What  differences  should  be  made 
in  feeding,  breeding  and  fattening  stock?  Why? 

*  Bui.  115,  Louisiana  Experiment  St  tion. 


SECTION  XXXIV. 


FEED  AND  CAEE  OF  YOUNG  FARM  ANIMALS. 

Requirements. — In  supplying  the  needs  of  young  animals  the 
nutrients  should  be  furnished  in  such  proportions  as  to  produce 
a  strong  healthy  growth.  The  ration  must  furnish  nutrients 
to  build  up  and  strengthen  the  bones;  it  must  supply  digesti- 
ble nutrients  so  necessary  for  the  rapid  formation  of  body  tis- 
sue. The  feeding  of  the  young  animal  influences  to  a  great  ex- 
tent the  efficiency  of  the  animal  for  its  purpose  in  future  life. 
Many  animals  are  ruined  by  improper  feeding  when  young. 

Composition  of  Animal  Bodies. — In  order  to  understand  the  re- 
quirements of  young  animals  let  us  find  out  the  composition  of 
the  bodies  of  the  young  and  more  mature  animals.  The  analyses 
of  the  whole  body  of  a  calf  made  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  and 
of  a  steer  made  by  the  Maine  Experiment  Station,  show  the 
following  composition: 


Protein 
per  cent. 

Fat 
per  cent. 

Ash 
per  cent. 

Water 
per  cent. 

Dry  matter 
per  cent. 

Calf  

16  ^ 

IA  I 

A  8 

64  6 

7C    A 

17  C 

2O  2 

52 

C7     T 

A2  Q 

q-^.y 

These  analyses  correspond  to  those  of  young  and  mature  ani- 
mals of  other  species.  A  study  of  these  analyses  shows  that 
the  young  animal  body  contains  more  water  and  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  protein  to  fat  than  that  of  the  more  mature  animal. 
Therefore  we  should  aim  to  furnish  nutrients  in  such  propor- 
tions that  will  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

Nature  has  fortunately  provided,  in  mothers'  milk,  the  food 
requirements  of  young  animals.  We  cannot  improve  upon  this 
food,  but  it  is  often  profitable  and  sometimes  necessary  to  wean 
the  animal  as  early  as  possible.  To  accomplish  this,  substitutes 
for  mothers'  milk  must  be  provided  to  satisfy  the  nutrients  es- 
sential to  good  healthy  growth. 

i.  Feeding  the  Beef  Calf. — If  the  most  rapid  gain  is  desired 
in  raising  the  calf  it  should  be  allowed  all  the  mother's  milk 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF   YOUNG  FARM   ANIMALS  247 

it  can  consume,  but  somcdmes  the  calf  gets  too  much  in  this 
way,  which  brings  about  indigestion.  In  such  cases  the  calf 
should  only  receive  a  limited  amount  and  the  excess  in  the 
cow's  udder  should  be  stripped  twice  a  day.  Sometimes  a  cow 
giving  a  generous  supply  of  milk  may  feed  two  calves  in  which 
case  stripping  will  not  be  necessary. 

Experiments  show  that  a  calf  on  mother's  milk  will  gain 
faster  during  the  first  month  than  for  the  following  months. 
A  gain  of  about  2^  to  3  Ibs.  a  day  for  the  first  month  and 
about  2  Ibs.  for  the  following  days  may  be  expected,  Hunt 
found  that  calves  fed  whole  milk  from  a  pail  gained  1.77  Ibs. 
daily  from  8.7  Ibs.  of  whole  milk  and  one  pound  of  grain  and 
one  pound  of  hay  per  pound  of  growth.  About  6  to  10  Ibs.  of 
whole  milk  produces  one  pound  of  gain. 

Generally  calves  are  allowed  milk  for  four  to  six  months,  the 
latter  period  being  preferable  when  possible,  because  whole  milk 
puts  on  good  flesh. 

After  Weaning,  the  calf  should  be  allowed  pasture  or  green 
crops  in  the  summer,  and  roots  or  silage  in  the  winter,  to  fur- 
nish the  succulence  so  necessary  to  keep  the  calf  in  a  healthy 
growing  condition.  At  this  stage  grain  should  be  furnished 
in  addition  to  whole  milk.  Oats,  shelled  corn,  oil  meal,  gluten 
feed  and  bran  are  adapted  for  feeding  calves.  Calves  be- 
come very  fond  of  corn,  but  this  grain  should  never  be  fed 
alone  because  it  contains  too  high  a  content  of  carbohydrates  to 
be  a  growing  food.  It  may  be  amended  with  whole  oats  and 
oil  meal,  or  gluten  feed,  or  with  oats  and  wheat  bran.  Either 
of  these  combinations  furnish  sufficient  protein  to  balance  the 
ration.  Bran  and  oil  meal  serve  to  regulate  the  digestive  organs. 

After  the  calf  is  weaned  the  feeder  must  try  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  weight  and  endeavor  to  produce  gain.  The  feeding  of 
grain  while  the  calf  is  on  mother's  milk  tends  to  lessen  shrink- 
age when  the  calf  is  weaned.  Protein  from  some  roughage 
should  supplement  the  grain.  This  may  be  furnished  in  winter 
by  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea  or  other  nitrogenous  hay  and  in  th^ 
summer  by  good  pasturage. 


248       ELEMENTARY    TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS    AND   FEEDING 

2.  Feeding  the  Dairy  Calf. — The  practice  of  allowing  the  calf 
practically  all  the  milk  it  desires  is  not  profitable  in  dairying. 
Hence  the  calf  must  be  weaned  as  soon  as  possible  and  substi- 
tutes furnished  to  take  the  place  of  the  whole  milk.  The  calf 
should  stay  with  the  mother  for  two  or  three  days  as  the 
colostrum  (first  milk)  fits  the  digestive  tract  for  later  reception 
of  food.  On  the  third  or  fourth  day  the  calf  may  be  separated 
from  the  mother  and  fed  10  Ibs.  of  whole  warm  milk  daily, 
from  a  pail.  This  amount  should  be  gradually  increased  until 
15  Ibs.  are  fed.  The  old  fashioned  way  of  placing  the  fingers 
in  the  pail  is  the  best  way  to  teach  the  calf  to  drink.  There  are 
many  arrangements  on  our  market  to  serve  this  purpose  but  they 
are  not  satisfactory  as  they  are  hard  to  keep  clean,  and  there- 
fore harbor  germs.  The  calf  should  receive  the  whole  warmed 
milk  at  least  three  times  a  day  and  it  should  alwrays  be  warmed. 
At  the  expiration  of  two  and  one-half  to  three  weeks,  warm 
skim  milk  may  be  partially  substituted  for  some  of  the  whole 
milk.  Just  a  little  skim  milk  should  be  used  at  first  and  the 
amount  gradually  increased.  The  changing  from  whole  to  skim 
milk  should  take  one  and  one-half  to  two  weeks.  When  the 
calf  is  on  skim  milk  entirely,  18  Ibs.  should  suffice,  although 
sometimes  a  larger  amount  is  beneficial.  Often  feeders  give 
calves  too  much  skim  milk  and  the  result  is  sickness.  It  should 
be  understood  that  calves  fed  on  skim  milk  are  not  so  fleshy  as 
those  fed  on  whole  milk,  because  skim  milk  is  deficient  in  fat, 
but  skim  milk  produces  growth  for  about  ^  of  what  it  costs 
with  whole  milk. 

Grain  and  Skim  Milk. — Some  feeders  utilize  skim  milk  entirely 
but  an  addition  of  cooked  flaxseed  meal  or  cooked  oil  meal  is 
more  satisfactory.  Cooked  flaxseed  meal  is  especially  to  be  rec- 
ommended. It  contains  high  percentages  of  protein  and  fat,  a 
low  percentage  of  carbohydrates,  and  is  easily  digestible.  It  is 
laxative  and  tends  to  keep  the  young  animal  in  good  condition. 
At  the  beginning,  about  a  spoonful  of  cooked  flaxseed  meal  or 
oil  meal  may  be  placed  in  the  warm  skim  milk.  This  amount 
should  be  gradually  increased  until  the  calf  is  consuming  y$  to 
*/2  lb.  a  day.  Feeds  as  corn  meal,  shorts,  bran,  gluten  feed, 


AND  CARE;  OF  YOUNG  FARM  ANIMALS  249 

oats,  etc.,  may  be  used.  Frequent  feeding  is  essential  for  the 
welfare  of  the  calf  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overfeed. 
The  calf  may  be  taught  to  eat  grain  by  placing  a  little  in  the 
mouth  after  it  has  finished  drinking  the  milk.  When  grain  is 
fed  there  should  not  be  any  left  over  after  a  meal.  If  so  reduce 
the  amount  and  never  let  grain  remain  in  the  feeding  trough  after 
a  meal.  A  little  nitrogenous  hay  as  alfalfa,  clover,  etc.,  or  when 
this  is  not  available,  corn  stover  or  well  cured  grass  hay,  should 
be  continually  supplied.  According  to  Henry  a  dairy  calf  should 
not  gain  over  one  and  one-half  pounds  a  day  during  the  first 
four  months  and  less  thereafter. 

All  feeding  utensils  should  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  and  it  is 
important  that  the  feeding  pails  be  frequently  scalded. 

Care  of  Calves. — Calves  are  not  so  rugged  as  cows  and  should 
be  well  protected  from  the  cold  of  winter  and  the  extreme  heat 
and  flies  of  summer.  When  flies  are  troublesome  the  calf  may 
be  pastured  at  night.  On  favorable  winter  days  the  calf  may  be 
turned  into  a  sunny  enclosure  for  exercise.  In  the  summer, 
when  it  is  very  hot,  the  calf  may  be  pastured  early  in  the  morn- 
ing and  late  in  the  afternoon,  which  will  allow  of  sufficient 
exercise  and  sunshine.  A  few  minutes  spent  each  day  in  brush- 
ing the  calf  will  be  found  beneficial. 

3.  Feeding  the  Colt. — When  the  colt  is  born,  the  dam  and 
foal  should  be  kept  in  the  barn  for  a  few  days.  Easily  digested 
food,  in  small  amounts,  is  desirable  at  this  time.  A  bran 
mash  is  relished  once  a  day.  The  mare  with  a  colt  should  be 
regarded  as  a  milch  animal  and  foods  that  tend  to  produce  a 
good  flow  of  milk  should  be  supplied.  To  bring  this  about  in 
summer  the  dam  and  foal  may  be  turned  on  pasture,  and  in 
winter,  succulent  feeds  as  roots  or  silage  should  be  fed.  If 
the  dam  and  foal  are  turned  on  pasture  they  should  be  looked 
after  every  day  to  be  sure  they  are  in  good  health.  As  with 
cows,  some  mares  give  too  much  milk  and  this  must  be  regu- 
lated by  drawing  the  last  of  the  milk  and  changing  the  food 
so  as  to  reduce  the  milk  production.  In  case  the  mare  is  on 
pasture  the  time  of  pasturing  may  be  limited  and  a  little  dry 
feed  fed.  Should  the  mare  not  furnish  enough  milk,  succulent 
17 


250      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

feeds  that  tend  to  increase  milk  giving  are  helpful.  Should 
this  fail,  the  colt  may  be  fed  whole  cows'  milk  which  may  be 
gradually  supplanted  with  skim  milk.  Intelligent  feeders  are 
very  successful  with  this  manner  of  feeding  colts  when  such  is 
necessary.  A  colt  may  be  reared  on  cows'  milk. 

Sometimes  a  mare  must  be  worked.  If  so  the  colt  should  be 
allowed  to  run  with  its  mother  for  two  or  three  weeks  so  as  to 
receive  a  sufficient  supply  of  nourishment.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  the  colt  may  be  kept  in  the  barn  and  put  with  the  mother 
three  times  a  day. 

Grain  for  the  Colt. — In  order  to  produce  flesh  that  will  not 
shrink  greatly  after  weaning,  grain  is  essential.  A  feed  box  in 
the  stall  or  feed  lot  should  be  placed  low  enough  so  that  the 
colt  can  conveniently  reach  it  and  ground  oats,  whole  oats, 
shelled  or  cracked  corn,  bran,  shorts  and  oil  meal  may  be  placed 
in  it.  The  colt  will  soon  learn  to  relish  the  grain.  If  the  colt 
is  on  pasture  a  separate  enclosure  may  be  built  that  will  permit 
of  the  colt's  entrance  but  not  of  the  mare's,  where  oats  and 
other  grain  food  may  be  supplied. 

Food  After  Weaning. — At  the  end  of  five  months  the  colt  may 
be  weaned.  Easily  digested  foods  in  limited  quantities  such  as 
ground  oats,  cracked  corn,  bran,  shorts  and  oil  meal  are  good. 
Oats  is  the  best  grain  for  the  colt,  but  a  mixture  of  other  grains 
is  desirable.  Sometimes  soft  foods  as  mashes,  crushed  oats, 
corn  meal,  etc.,  are  relished  and  necessary  when  the  teeth  are 
being  cut.  Roughage,  as  well  cured  hay,  straw,  corn  stover, 
etc.,  helps  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  digestive  organs  and 
accustoms  the  animal  to  eating  such  feed  as  will  be  supplied 
when  it  is  more  mature.  Colts  are  apt  to  eat  more  roughage 
than  is  good  for  them  unless  the  supply  is  limited.  Plenty  of 
exercise  is  about  as  important  as  furnishing  the  proper  amount 
of  food.  Many  colts  are  ruined  by  overfeeding  and  lack  of 
exercise. 

4.  Feeding  the  Lamb. — When  the  lamb  is  born  it  is  often  nec- 
essary to  help  it  secure  its  first  food.  Sometimes  the  ewe  must 
be  held  for  the  first  day  or  so.  In  some  cases  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  place  the  ewe  and  lamb  in  a  pen  away  from  the  rest 


AND  CARE  OF   YOUNG  FARM   ANIMALS  251 

of  the  sheep,  when  the  mother  refuses  to  own  her  lamb,  and  in 
a  few  days  the  mother  will  claim  it. 

In  case  the  mother  dies,  the  lamb  may  be  reared  on  cows'  milk 
by  feeding  with  a  bottle.  At  first  the  lamb  must  be  fed  about 
15  times  a  day  and  when  two  weeks  old,  feeding  may  be  cut 
down  to  three  times  a  day. 

Feed  for  Ewes'  Suckling  Lambs. — The  lamb  is  most  always  fed 
through  its  mother;  therefore  a  milk  producing  ration  is  nec- 
essary. In  the  summer  the  ewes'  suckling  lambs  will  get  along 
nicely  on  good  pasturage,  without  grain.  In  the  winter,  roots 
or  silage,  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  and  some  grains  as  oats,  corn, 
shorts,  bran,  peas,  oil  meal  and  gluten  feed  are  adapted  for 
producing  a  good  milk  supply.  In  the  absence  of  nitrogenous 
hay,  well  cured  grass  hay,  straw  or  corn  stover  may  be  utilized. 
Timothy  hay  is  not  desirable  for  sheep.  Many  good  rations 
may  be  fed  depending  upon  the  feeds  available  and  their  market 
prices.  The  ration  should  always  be  such  as  to  produce  a  liberal 
flow  of  milk.  A  mixture  of  54  to  i  pound  of  the  following 
feeds  are  satisfactory  for  the  grain  portion  of  a  day's  ration: 

Oil  meal I  part  Corn 2  parts 

Corn  meal 2  parts  Oats 2  parts 

Bran 2  parts  Shorts I  part 

Grass  hay 2  pounds  Clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  2  pounds 

Roots  or  silage 2  pounds  Roots  or  silage 2  pounds 

Corn 2  parts  Bran 3  parts 

Bran 2  parts  Oil  meal I  part 

Gluten  feed i  part  Sliced  roots  or  silage-   2  pounds 

Grass  hay 2  pounds  Nitrogenous  hay  ....   2  pounds 

Roots  or  silage 2  pounds 

If  the  ewe  gives  too  much  milk  the  feed  should  be  changed. 
If  on  pasture  the  ewe  may  be  taken  off  for  a  certain  length  of 
time  each  day  and  supplied  a  little  dry  feed.  If  in  the  barn  the 
succulent  feeds  may  be  reduced. 

Grain  for  Lambs. — Lambs  should  be  supplied  with  a  little  grain 
to  produce  the  best  growth.  Experiments  show  that  lambs 
fed  grain  in  addition  to  mothers'  milk,  gain  faster  than  those 
that  do  not  receive  grain.  Sometimes  it  may  not  prove  profitable 
to  feed  grain  to  lambs  on  pasture  unless  they  are  to  be  sold  in 


252      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

the  fall.  If  kept  for  winter  or  spring  markets  they  may  be  fed 
grain  for  marketing  at  that  time.  When  grain  is  fed  to  lambs 
a  separate  feeding  trough  not  accessible  to  the  mothers  should 
be  in  every  pen  or  pasture  to  provide  the  grain.  No  feed  should 
be  left  over  from  time  to  time. 


Fig.  22.— Mutton  type. 


The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  found  that  one  pound  of 
ewe's  milk  produced  0.15  Ib.  gain;  a  daily  gain  of  0.4  to  0.6  of 
a  pound  per  lamb  was  made;  lambs  before  weaning  required 
4  Ibs.  of  grain  for  a  gain  of  I  Ib.  The  Maine  Experiment  Sta- 
tion found  that  5^  Ibs.  of  grain  produced  i  Ib.  gain. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  YOUNG  FARM   ANIMALS 


253 


5.  Feeding  the  Pig. — In  rearing  pigs  it  is  desirable  to  produce 
rapid  gain  and  a  strong  bony  structure  to  support  the  body. 
When  they  are  born  they  may  be  kept  away  from  the  sow  except 
at  feeding  time,  because  they  are  liable  to  be  killed  or  injured 
by  the  sow  laying  on  them.  When  they  become  lively  this 
separation  will  be  unnecessary.  At  the  age  of  two  weeks  the 
pig  may  be  supplied  with  a  mixture  of  skim  milk  and  middlings 
in  feeding  troughs  not  accessible  to  the  sow.  At  four  weeks  a 
little  corn  meal  may  be  substituted  for  part  of  the  middlings, 
which  may  be  gradually  increased  until  equal  parts  of  corn  meal 
and  middlings  are  fed.  Ground  oats,  barley,  and  peas  are  suit- 
able and  may  be  used  instead  of  corn  meal  and  middlings. 
Soaking  or  wetting  feed  for  young  pigs  seems  to  be  beneficial ; 
hence  it  is  good  practice  to  add  the  dry  feed  to  the  skim  milk. 

The  pig  is  generally  weaned  at  the  age  of  7  to  12  weeks. 
The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  found  that  late  weaning  at 
the  age  of  10  to  12  weeks  is  profitable.  Just  as  rapid  gains  were 
made  by  feeding  through  the  mother  as  to  the  pigs.  The  ad- 
vantage of  late  weaning  is  that  it  affords  the  utilization  of 
cheaper  feeds  than  can  be  fed  to  the  young  pig.  The  practice 
of  gradually  drying  off  a  sow  by  weaning  the  strongest  pigs 
first  is  a  good  one. 

The  following  table  from  Henry's  "Feed  and  Feeding/'  is  the 
work  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  and  was  conducted 
to  determine  the  gain  of  young  pigs : 


Age  of  pigs 

Weight 
of  pigs 
pounds 

Gain  in 
7  days 
per  cent. 

2-5 
44 
7.0 
9.8 
12.5 
15-6 
18.6 

22.6 

27.8 
33-i 
38.5 

76. 

59- 

40. 
28. 
25- 
19- 

22. 

23. 
19- 

16. 

piftli  wcclc  

254      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Exercise. — Young  pigs  should  be  forced  to  exercise  as  they 
are  liable  to  become  very  fat.  Feed  may  be  scattered  about  the 
litter  which  will  give  the  young  pigs  some  work,  or  they  may 
be  driven  about  a  yard  for  a  few  times  every  day. 

Suggestion : — What  are  the  bone  producing  elements  and  what 
feeds  contain  these  in  the  most  suitable  proportions?  Why 
should  young  stock  be  fed  narrower  nutritive  ratios  than  mature 
animals  ? 


SECTION  XXXV. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY. 

The  Importance  of  feeding  poultry  properly  may  be  realized 
when  we  become  acquainted  with  the  extent  of  this  industry  in 
the  United  States.  For  the  year  I9O81  the  value  of  poultry  and 
eggs  in  this  country  was  as  much  as  the  cotton  crop,  seed  in- 
cluded, or  the  hay  crop,  or  the  wheat  crop.  The  hay  crop  for 
I9081  was  valued  at  $635,423,000. 

Requirements. — The  requirements  of  poultry  are  somewhat 
different  than  for  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  in  that  poultry  re- 
quire both  animal  and  vegetable  food.  The  vegetable  food  may 
be  low  in  ash  in  which  case  animal  food  as  bone  should  be  sup- 
plied to  furnish  phosphate  of  lime.  When  the  vegetable  por- 
tion of  the  ration  is  deficient  in  protein  the  animal  food  should 
make  up  for  this  deficiency.  In  fattening  mature  fowls  vegeta- 
ble food  may  predominate  and  animal  food  may  be  added  to 
increase  the  palatability  of  the  ration.  A  variety  of  foods  seems 
to  give  the  best  results,  because  of  the  increase  in  palatability 
and  beneficial  influence  in  keeping  the  fowls  in  good  condition. 

Foods  should  make  up  the  ration  to  supply  the  nutrients  in  the 
right  proportions.  A  different  ration  is  required  for  fattening 
fowls  than  for  those  producing  eggs  or  breeding.  Some  breeds 
used  for  egg  production  take  on  fat  more  readily  than  others 
and  the  feed  should  be  administered  so  that  they  will  have  to 
exercise  to  keep  them  laying.  Other  breeds  like  the  Leghorns, 
may  be  fed  differently  because  they  are  not  prone  to  fatten  rap- 
idly. 

Composition  of  Fowls  and  Eggs. — Before  taking  up  the  feeds 
and  amounts  of  nutrients  needed  for  fowls,  let  us  study  the 
composition  of  the  body  and  the  egg.  The  New  York  Experi- 
ment Station  made  several  analyses  of  fowls  and  some  of  the 
results  of  this  work  are  given  in  the  following  table,  which  was 
compiled  from  Jordan's  "The  Feeding  of  Animals :" 

1  1908  Yearbook,  United  States  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


256      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


Protein 
per  cent. 

Fat 
per  cent. 

Water 
per  cent. 

Ash 

per  cent. 

21.6 
21.2 
19.4 

49-8 
48.9 

38.5 
13.2 

17.0 
18.0 

33-9 
38.6 

38.5 
25-9 
8.9 

55-8 
55-4 
41.6 

3-8 
3-4 
3-7 
3-5 
8.6 
35-6 
0.8 

Mature  capon  (Plymouth  Rock)  .  .  . 

65.7 

Discussion  of  the  Table. — The  analyses  of  the  fowls  include  the 
whole  body  (bones,  feathers,  blood,  etc.)  and  not  the  clean  fowl 
of  the  market.  Of  the  ash  of  eggs,  53.7  per  cent,  is  phosphoric 
acid  and  0.2  per  cent,  of  that  portion  which  is  eaten,  is  phos- 
phoric acid.  As  in  animals,  a  great  deal  of  water  is  present  in 
the  body.  Eggs  are  also  made  up  largely  of  water.  This  fact 
indicates  the  necessity  for  furnishing  fowls  with  a  continual  and 
fresh  supply  of  pure  water.  The  large  amount  of  ash  in  eggs 
shows  us  that  laying  fowls  require  comparatively  large  amounts 
of  this  material  for  the  construction  of  good  eggs.  Poultry  kept 
in  houses  closely  confined  must  be  supplied  with  mineral  con- 
stituents in  some  form. 

The  table  also  shows  that  fowls  contain  considerable  protein 
in  their  bodies  and  that  eggs  are  largely  composed  of  this  com- 
pound. Often  the  food  of  poultry  consists  of  the  wastes  from 
the  kitchen  and  dairy  and  may  sometimes  be  deficient  in  this 
nutrient  for  the  welfare  of  laying  and  breeding  fowls. 

Some  of  the  principal  feeds  suitable  for  poultry  will  now  be 
discussed. 

Corn. — This  feed  is  found  in  many  poultry  rations  and  hens 
relish  this  grain.  It  is  a  fattening  food  and  should  not  be  fed 
alone.  For  laying  hens  it  should  be  fed  in  limited  quantities 
and  some  fowls  like  the  general  purpose  and  Asiatics,  which 
easily  fatten,  will  get  so  fat  on  this  grain  that  they  will  not  lay. 
The  Mediterraneans  (Leghorns  and  other  egg  breeds)  are  not 

1  Female  more  than  one  year  old  is  called  a  hen. 
Female  less  than  one  year  old  is  called  a  pullet. 
Male  more  than  one  year  old  is  called  a  cock. 
Male  less  than  one  year  old  is  called  a  cockerel. 
A  castrated  male  chicken  is  called  a  capon. 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY  257 

prone  to  get  fat  and  may  consume  more  of  it  than  the  Asiatics 
without  injuring  their  egg  production.  Corn  may  be  fed  in 
larger  amounts  in  cold  weather  because  of  its  heat  producing 
power.  Corn  tends  to  give  the  yolk  of  eggs  a  yellow  color. 
Corn  is  fed  whole,  cracked  and  as  corn  meal. 

Kaffir  Corn  is  somewhat  similar  to  corn  in  composition  and 
should  make  up  only  a  part  of  a  laying  hen's  ration.  This  feed 
is  very  popular  in  certain  sections  and  is  found  in  many  com- 
mercial poultry  feeds. 

Oats  contain  sufficient  protein  to  be  of  value  for  young  fowls. 
Poultrymen  favor  heavy  oats  for  feeding  and  declare  that  it  is 
one  of  the  best  grains  to  feed  alone  when  other  feed  is  scarce. 

Rye  is  sometimes  fed,  but  poultry  do  not  seem  to  relish  this 
grain. 

Wheat  is  especially  desirable  for  poultry  because  it  is  rich  in 
protein  and  ash  and  is  valuable  in  grain  mixtures. 

Barley  is  fed  whole  or  ground  and  it  is  often  used  for  fatten- 
ing. For  laying  hens  barley,  like  corn,  should  only  form  a 
part  of  the  ration. 

Buckwheat  contains  considerable  carbohydrates  and  is  a  fav- 
orable fattening  food  when  the  price  is  reasonable.  It  forms 
fine  white  skin  which  is  a  good  factor  for  market  fowls. 

Millet  Seed  is  often  fed  in  poultry  rations.  It  is  somewhat 
similar  in  composition  to  oats  and  may  be  used  in  furnishing 
variety  to  the  ration.  It  is  not  so  fattening  as  barley  or  corn. 

Rice. — Broken  rice  is  often  fed  and  on  account  of  its  high  con- 
tent of  carbohydrates  it  is  very  fattening. 

Peas  are  good  for  furnishing  protein  to  the  ration.  When  the 
market  value  will  permit,  the  feeding  of  this  grain  as  a  part 
of  the  ration  is  profitable. 

Sunflower  Seeds  are  rich  in  protein  and  fat,  but  their  nutritive 
ratio  is  narrow  enough  to  consider  them  a  protein  feed.  These 
seeds  are  found  in  most  commercial  hen  feeds  and  should  be 
desirable  in  furnishing  variety. 

Flax  Seeds  are  very  rich  in  oil  and  a  small  amount  in  a  ration 
may  be  fed  during  the  molting  season  when  the  oil  tends  to  help 
in  the  shedding  of  feathers.  It  is  perhaps  more  economical  to 


258      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

eliminate  this  feed  unless  it  can  be  purchased  cheap.  Unground 
it  is  not  a  satisfactory  feed  for  poultry. 

Linseed  Meal  is  high  in  protein  and  is  very  desirable  in  the 
molting  season  on  account  of  the  presence  of  oil  which  tends  to 
loosen  the  feathers.  It  may  be  used  to  furnish  protein  to  a 
ration. 

Cotton-Seed  Meal  is  a  dangerous  poultry  feed  when  fed  in  large 
quantities.  It  seems  to  produce  sickness  and  if  fed  must  be 
used  in  very  limited  amounts.  It  is  perhaps  safer  to  supply 
protein  from  some  other  source.  It  is  understood  that  the 
United  States  Dept.  of  Agriculture  have  been  endeavoring  to 
eliminate  the  toxic  or  poisonous  principle  in  cotton-seed  meal  and 
if  they  successfully  accomplish  this  it  will  render  this  feed  much 
safer  and  more  valuable  for  a  feed  for  poultry  and  farm  animals 
generally. 

Gluten  Feed  and  dried  brewers'  grains  are  used  in  some  sec- 
tions to  bring  up  the  protein  content  of  poultry  rations  and  are 
very  suitable. 

Wheat  Screenings  of  good  quality  is  sometimes  an  economical 
poultry  feed.  The  quality  of  this  material  is  variable  and  the 
poultryman  should  use  his  judgment  in  purchasing  this  by- 
product. 

Wheat  Bran. — Bran  is  used  in  mashes  and  it  gives  bulk  to  a 
ration.  It  is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  compounds  which  make 
it  a  valuable  feed. 

Wheat  Shorts  and  low  grade  flour  are  sometimes  used  in  a  dry 
mash  and  when  the  price  is  reasonable  may  be  profitably  utilized. 

Meat  Scrap  sometimes  called  beef  scrap,  is  either  fed  alone  or 
mixed  with  other  feeds  to  form  a  dry  mash.  This  animal  food 
varies  in  protein  but  is  always  rich  in  this  constituent.  It  also 
contains  considerable  fat  and  ash.  Poultry  are  very  fond  of 
animal  food  and  especially  of  meat  scrap. 

Fresh  Cut  Bone. — Fresh  or  green  cut  bone  is  perhaps  the  best 
animal  food  for  poultry.  It  is  rich  in  protein,  fat  and  ash. 
The  elements  that  make  up  the  ash  are  principally  in  the  form 
of  calcium  phosphate  which  is  used  in  building  up  a  strong 
body  and  in  producing  eggs  of  good  quality.  It  is  sometimes 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF   POULTRY  259 

difficult  to  grind  fresh  bone  on  the  farm.  This  material  should 
never  be  fed  when  in  a  spoiled  condition  as  it  causes  sickness. 

Dry  Cracked  Bone  is  easier  to  keep  in  good  condition  than  fresh 
cut  bone  and  for  this  reason  may  be  purchased  at  feed  stores. 
It  is  not  as  valuable  as  fresh  cut  bone  but  nevertheless  it  is  an 
exceedingly  desirable  poultry  food.  Bone  in  some  form  should 
be  kept  before  poultry  at  all  times  to  furnish  the  nutrients  for 
making  firm  and  fine  flavored  eggs. 

Meat  and  Bone  Meal. — As  the  name  implies  this  feed  is  com- 
posed of  meat  and  very  fine  ground  bone.  This  is  a  very  desir- 
able poultry  food  as  it  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  protein,  fat  and 
ash. 

Skim  Milk  is  a  splendid  food  for  fattening  or  growing  chick- 
ens, whether  sweet  or  sour.  It  may  be  fed  alone  or  with  a  mash. 
When  utilized  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  feeding  vessels 
thoroughly  clean. 

Green  Food. — Like  animals,  poultry  do  well  when  supplied 
green  food.  In  the  spring  when  tender  grass  is  furnished,  an 
increase  in  egg  production  is  noticeable.  Therefore  it  should 
be  the  aim  of  every  poultryman  to  supply  pasture  or  green  grass 
or  legumes  to  the  poultry  in  summer  and  in  the  winter  cut  clover, 
alfalfa,  and  immature  cured  grasses  are  beneficial.  Clover  and 
alfalfa  meal  are  found  on  our  markets  but  the  farmer  should 
raise  enough  of  these  hays  so  that  he  will  not  be  forced  to  buy 
them.  Alfalfa  and  clover  are  better  than  grass  hays  because 
they  run  higher  in  protein  and  ash  and  are  excellent  for  the 
needs  of  laying  'hens.  The  finer  parts  that  are  found  about  the 
barn  may  be  saved  for  the  poultry.  The  coarse  stems  are  not 
generally  consumed  but  so  little  of  this  material  is  required  that 
what  is  left  will  not  amount  to  much.  Lettuce,  cabbage  and 
onions  are  also  sometimes  fed  and  poultry  are  very  fond  of 
these  vegetables.  Cabbage  twice  a  week  is  sufficient  and  onions 
once  in  a  while.  If  these  feeds  are  fed  continually  they  are 
liable  to  spoil  the  flavor  of  the  eggs. 

Other  Succulent  Feed. — Roots  such  as  potatoes,  beets,  etc.,  are 
excellent.  They  may  be  hand  fed  or  stuck  on  nails  about  the 
yard  or  house.  Silage  is  also  beneficial  and  may  be  furnished 
two  or  three  times  a  week.  Apples  when  plentiful  are  splendid. 


260      ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

The  fresh  vegetable  wastes  from  the  kitchen  are  relished  by 
poultry  and  may  be  utilized  advantageously  in  this  way.  Suc- 
culent food  is  laxative  and  too  much  therefore  should  not  be 
supplied. 

Grit. — The  hen  grinds  its  food  in  the  gizzard.  In  order  that 
hens  may  grind  food,  grit  in  some  form  must  be  furnished  them. 
When  grit  is  lacking  digestive  troubles  take  place.  Ground 
broken  glass  or  mica  crystal  grit  are  needed  even  if  sand  is  sup- 
plied. Shells  do  not  take  the  place  of  grit.  As  soon  as  the 
stones  in  the  gizzard  become  round  they  are  passed  off. 

Lime. — As  the  shell  of  eggs  contain  a  great  deal  of  lime  it 
must  be  furnished  poultry  in  some  form  easily  assimilated. 
Ground  oyster  shells  seem  to  furnish  lime  in  a  splendid  form. 
Limestone  is  also  used.  Lame  in  some  form  should  be  before 
hens  at  all  times. 

Charcoal  should  be  accessible  to  hens  continually.  It  absorbs 
objectionable  gases  and  tends  to  keep  the  digestive  system  in 
good  condition. 

Salt  in  small  quantities  is  desirable.  This  mineral  should  not 
be  supplied  in  large  quantities.  About  5  ounces  to  100  Ibs.  of 
feed  are  considered  safe. 

Exercise. — Most  birds  are  naturally  very  active  and  require 
a  great  deal  of  exercise  to  keep  the  body  in  good  health.  Lay- 
ing hens  and  breeding  cocks  especially  must  have  exercise.  This 
can  be  provided  in  summer  by  allowing  them  liberty  or  by  fur- 
nishing a  yard.  In  winter  the  hens  should  be  made  to  exercise 
to  get  their  food.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  providing  a 
heavy  litter  of  straw  and  scattering  the  grain  over  it  so  that 
the  hens  will  be  forced  to  scratch  for  their  food. 

Palatability  of  Feed. — Experiments  have  demonstrated  that 
hens  are  not  all  alike  in  their  fondness  for  certain  food.  Their 
tastes  should  be  catered  to  in  compounding  rations  and  the  best 
way  to  do  this  is  to  furnish  variety.  Musty,  sour,  or  unclean 
food  is  not  desirable  for  meat  or  egg  production. 

Mash  is  fed  wet  or  dry  and  experiments  have  shown  that  dry 
mash  is  the  better.  Advantages  in  feeding  dry  mash  are;  the 
production  of  more  fertile  eggs,  the  feeding  receptacles  are  easily 
kept  clean  and  sanitary,  and  time  is  saved  in  furnishing  food. 


SECTION  XXXVI. 


STANDARDS  AND  RATIONS  FOR  POULTRY. 
Points  to  be  Observed  in  Compounding  Rations. — Rice  in  Read- 
ing Course  for  Farmers,  No.  18,  gives  the  following  points  to 
be  observed  in  making  rations  for  poultry : 

1.  "It  should  be  composed  of  foods  every  one  of  which  the 
fowls  like. 

2.  "It   should   contain  a  sufficient   quantity  of   digestible   nu- 
trients to  supply  the  needs  of  rapid  growth  and  large  produc- 
tion. 

3.  "It  should  have  enough  bulk  to  enable  the  digestive  secre- 
tions to  act  quickly  upon  it. 

4.  "It  should  not  contain  an  excess  of  indigestible  fiber,  which 
must  be  thrown  off  by  the  system,  thus  causing  a  waste  of  energy. 

5.  "A  certain  portion  of  the  feed  should  be  of  whole  grain  in 
order  to  provide  muscular  activity  of  the  digestive  organs.  This 
is  made  necessary  in  grinding  the  grain. 

"Under  certain  conditions  a  quantity  of  the  ration  should  be 
of  soft  ground  food.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  providing 
quickly  available  nutrients  to  supply  the  immediate  demands  of 
rapid  growth  or  heavy  continuous  egg  yield. 

6.  "It  must  provide  a  good  variety  of  foods  in  which  are  in- 
cluded grain,  green  food,  meat  and  mineral  matter,   in  proper 
proportions. 

7.  "The  age  of  the  fowl,  the  breed  and  kind  of  product  which 
it  is  desired  to  produce,  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  to 
whether  the  food  is  intended  to  grow  muscle  and  bone,  or  to 
produce  eggs,  or  to  fatten. 

8.  "The  ration  must  provide  two  classes  of  food  nutrients,  the 
protein   and   carbohydrates,   in   such  proportions  that  they  will 
supply  the  daily  need  of  the  fowl's  system;  it  must  also  provide 
sufficient  digestible  protein  to  repair  the  waste  of  tissue  with 
new  growth  and  to  produce  eggs,  and  provide  the  proper  amount 
of  digestible  carbohydrate  food  to  furnish  heat,  energy  and  lay 
by  a  little  surplus  fuel  in  the  form  of  fat. 


262      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


9.  "The  ration  must  consist  of  foods  which  furnish  the  nu- 
trients at  the  lowest  possible  cost. 

10.  "The  food  in  the  ration  must  not  have  an  injurious  effect 
on  the  color  or  the  flavor  of  the  product. 

11.  "It  is  not  how  much  a  fowl  eats,  but  how  much  it  can 
digest,  that  determines  tne  value  of  the  food.     Various  classes 
of   animals   differ   in   their  power  to   digest   the   same   kind   of 
food.     Foods  also  vary  in  their  digestibility  when  used  by  the 
same    animal.     Unfortunately    the    proportion    of    each   poultry 
food  which  fowls  can  ordinarily  digest,  has  not  yet  been  deter- 
mined, therefore  we  are  obliged  to  use  the  standards  of  digesti- 
bility which  are  used  in  compounding  rations  for  other  animals." 

POUI/TRY  STANDARDS — PER  100  POUNDS,  LIVE  WEIGHT.1 


) 
Weight 
pounds 

Dry 

matter 

Ash 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nutritive 
ratio 

MAINTENANCE 

2-3 
2.7 

3-9 

3-3 
5-5 

10.  1 

9.6 
8.6 

7-4 
6.4 
5-4 

17.2 
17.0 

II.  2 

8.0 
7.0 
4.6 

O.o6 
0.10 

0.15 

0.20 
0.30 

0.50 

0.70 
0.6o 
0.50 
0.50 
O.4O 

1.  60 
1-50 
0.80 
0.60 
0.50 
0.30 

0.30 
0.40 
0.50 

0.65 
1.  00 

2.OO 

2.20 
2.00 
1.  60 
1.20 
1.  00 

4.OO 
4.10 
2.70 
1.70 
1.40 
O.QO 

1.74 
2.OO 

2-95 
2.25 

3-75 

7.20 
6.  20 
5-60 
4.90 
4.40 
3-70 

11.20 
10.10 
7.00 

5  20 

4.70 
3.20 

0.20 
0.20 
0.30 

0.20 
0-35 

O.4O 
0.50 
0.40 
0.40 
0.30 
0.30 

1.40 
1.30 
0.70 
0.50 
0.40 
O.2O 

i:7.5 

1:6.2 
1:7.4 

1:4.2 
1:4.6 

1:4.1 
1:3.4 
1:3.3 
1:3.7 
1:4.3 
1:4.4 

1:3.7 
1:3.2 

1:3.3 
1:3.8 

1:4.1 
1:4.1 

TTprm                                         •    5-  7 

T-Tptm                                            1-   ^ 

HENS  IN  FULI,  LAYING 

"Hens                                          t;-  8 

TTerm                                         :    i-   ^ 

CHICKS'  AGE 

From  2-4  weeks  

From  10-12  weeks  
DUCKLINGS 

From  8-10  weeks  
From  10-15  weeks  

Use  of  the  Table. — Rations  for  fowls  may  be  figured  in  a  simi- 
lar way  as  for  farm  animals  by  the  use  of  Table  I  and  this  table 
of  poultry  standards.  In  making  up  rations  for  fowls,  large 
amounts  of  feed  may  be  mixed  at  one  time,  as  it  would  not  be 

1  Wheeler,  in  Jordan's,  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


STANDARDS  AND  RATIONS   FOR  POULTRY  263 

practical  to  compound  feed  enough  for  a  few  days.  Supposing 
we  had  enough  laying  hens,  weighing  5-8  Ibs.,  to  make  a  total 
live  weight  of  200,  300,  400  or  500  Ibs.  Our  standard  for  laying 
hens  of  this  weight  would  be  multiplied  by  2,  3,  4,  or  5  as  the 
case  would  be  and  the  feed  balanced  accordingly.  Example; 
the  standard  for  laying  hens  weighing  5-8  Ibs.,  is,  dry  matter 
3.3  Ibs.,  ash  0.20  lb.,  digestible  protein  0.65  lb.,  digestible  car- 
bohydrates 2.25  Ibs.,  and  digestible  fat  0.20  lb.  Let  us  sup- 
pose all  our  laying  hens  total  300  Ibs.  live  weight.  Then  to  find 
the  standard  for  300  Ibs.  we  must  multiply  the  standard  for  100 
Ibs.  by  3. 

Standard  for  Standard  for 

100  pounds  300  pounds 

3.3  ]  f     9.9    pounds  dry  matter 

0.20  0.60  pound  ash 

0.65  X  3  =  1.95  pounds  digestible  protein 

2.25  6.75  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates 

0.20  J  [_     0.60  pound  digestible  fat 

These  standards  are  figured  for  daily  requirements. 

Chick  Rations. — Chicks  should  not  be  allowed  to  eat  too  much. 
Some  of  the  methods  of  feeding  chicks  used  in  the  Maine  Ex- 
periment Station  taken  from  Farmer's  Bui.  357,  follow: 

I.  "Infertile  eggs  are  boiled  for  a  half  an  hour  and  then  ground 
in  an  ordinary  meat  chopper,  shells  included,  and  mixed  with 
about  six  times  their  bulk  of  rolled  oats,  by  rubbing  both  to- 
gether. This  mixture  is  fed  for  two  or  three  days,  until  the 
chicks  have  learned  how  to  eat.  It  is  fed  with  chick  grit,  on 
the  brooder  floor,  on  short  cut  clover  or  chaff. 

"About  the  third  day  the  chicks  are  fed  a  mixture  of  hard, 
fine  broken  grains,  as  soon  as  they  can  see  to  eat  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  mixture  is : 

Parts 

by 

weight 

Ci  acked  wheat 15 

Pinhead  oats  ( granulated  oat  meal ) TO 

Fine  screened  cracked  corn 15 

Fine  cracked  peas  3 

Broken  rice  2 

Chick  grit 5 

Fine  charcoal  (chick  size) 2 


264      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

"It  is  fed  on  the  litter,  care  being  taken  to  limit  the  quantity, 
so  they  shall  be  hungry  at  9  A.  M.  at  which  time  the  rolled 
oats  and  egg  mixture  is  fed  in  tin  plates  with  low  rims.  The 
feed  is  kept  before  them  for  five  minutes.  At  12.30  the  hard 
grain  mixture  is  fed  again,  as  in  the  morning,  and  at  4.30  or  5 
p.  M.  they  are  fed  all  they  will  eat  in  a  half  an  hour  of  the  rolled 
oats  and  egg  mixture.  Sharp  grit,  fine  charcoal,  and  clean  water 
are  always  before  the  chicks." 

When  the  chicks  are  about  3  weeks  old  the  Maine  Experiment 
Station  displaces  the  rolled  oats  and  egg  mixture  with  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Parts 

weight 

Wheat  bran 2 

Corn  meal 4 

Middlings  or  red  dog  flour 2 

Linseed  meal i 

Screened  beef  scrap 2 

This  mixture  is  slightly  moistened  with  water  before  feeding. 

2.  Another  method  employed  by  the  Maine  Experiment  Sta- 
tion is  to  supply  fine  beef  scrap  very  early  in  the  morning  instead 
of  boiled  eggs,  and  feed  dry.  At  9  o'clock  the  following  is  fed : 

Parts 

by 
weight 

Rolled  oats 2 

Wheat  bran   2 

Corn  meal 2 

Linseed  meal >^ 

Screened  beef  scrap i 

The  same  order  of  feeding  as  in  the  first  method  is  followed. 

The  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  Bui.  164,  uses  the  following 
method : 

"When  a  chick  is  newly  hatched,  it  is  allowed  to  dry  off  in 
the  incubator  and  then  put  into  the  brooder  which  has  been 
heated  to  100  degrees.  When  48-60  hours  old  the  chicks  are 
fed  some  boiled,  tested-out  eggs.  Following  this,  they  have 
placed  before  them  in  a  shallow  pan  a  dry  mash  made  as  fol- 
lows: 


STANDARDS  AND  RATIONS   FOR  POULTRY  265 

2  pounds  corn  meal 
2  pounds  shorts 
2  pounds  bran 
2  pounds  beef  scrap 
X  pound  charcoal 

"This  is  kept  before  them  practically  all  the  time,  from  the 
time  they  are  large  enough  to  eat  it  until  they  have  obtained  a 
good  growth. 

''Scattered  in  the  litter,  five  times  daily  thereafter,  is  a  grain 
mixture  as  follows: 

2  pounds  corn  chop  (sifted) 
a  pounds  cracked  Kaffir  corn 
2  pounds  cracked  wheat 

1  pound  millet 

"Before  them  at  all  times  are  pans  of  fresh  water  and  clean 
grit.  Absolute  cleanliness  and  sanitation  are  ever  present. 

"When  the  chicks  are  large  enough  to  eat  whole  grain,  the 
cracked  is  taken  away.  If  the  chicks  are  early  hatched  and  have 
attained  a  good  growth  early  in  the  summer  the  beef  scrap  and 
possibly  all  the  mash  should  be  cut  out  of  the  ration.  This  pre- 
vents premature  development  with  early  chicks  and  consequent 
fall  molting.  The  ration  above  mentioned  produced  3  Ib.  White 
Plymouth  Rock  cockerels  in  10  weeks  from  date  of  hatch." 

Fattening  Rations. — Experiments  at  the  Maine  Experiment 
Station,  given  in  Farmers'  Bui.  357,  state  that  the  following 
grain  mixture  was  used  in  fattening  cockerels  and  was  fed  wet 
with  good  success : 

100  pounds  corn  meal 
100  pounds  wheat  middlings 
40  pounds  meat  meal 

The  wetting  of  the  above  mixture  with  skim  milk  improved  its 
efficiency  for  fattening. 

The  following  fattening  ration  has  been  successfully  used  in 
preparing  cockerels  for  market  by  the  Kansas  Experiment  Sta- 
tion: 

2  pounds  ground  oats 
2  pounds  shorts 

2  pounds  corn  meal 
i  pound  beef  scrap 
18 


266      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Pearl  in  Farmers'  Bui.  357,  says:  "An  experiment  with  150 
birds  when  they  were  four  months  old  showed  that  they  re- 
quired 4.9  Ibs.  of  grain  to  produce  I  pound  of  gain,  while  birds 
from  the  same  stock,  when  they  were  six  months  old,  required 
7.4  Ibs.  of  grain  to  produce  I  pound  of  gain."  He  further  con- 
cludes that: 

1.  "As  great  gains  are  made  just  as  cheaply  and  more  easily 
when  the  chickens  are  put  into  small  houses  and  yards  as  when 
they  are  fed  in  small  lots  in  lattice  coops  just  large  enough  to 
hold  them. 

2.  "Four  weeks  is  about  the  limit  of  profitable  feeding,  both 
individually  and  in  flocks. 

3.  "Chickens  gain  faster  while  young.     Birds  that  are   from 
150-175  days  old  have  uniformly  given  comparatively  small  gains. 

4.  "The  practice  of  successful  poultrymen  selling  chickens  at 
the  earliest  marketable  age  is  well  founded. 

"The  experiments  clearly  indicate  that  it  is  profitable  to  fatten 
chickens  in  cheaply  constructed  sheds  or  in  large  coops  with 
small  runs  for  about  four  weeks  and  then  send  them  to  market 
dressed.  In  quality  the  well  covered,  soft  fleshed  chickens  are 
so  much  superior  to  the  same  birds  not  specially  prepared  that 
the  former  will  be  sought  for  at  a  higher  price.  The  dairy 
farmer  is  particularly  well  prepared  to  carry  on  this  work,  as  he 
has  the  skim  milk  which  these  experiments  show  to  be  of  so 
great  importance  in  obtaining  cheap  rapid  growth  and  superior 
quality  of  flesh." 

Laying  Rations. — According  to  Farmers'  Bui.  357,  the  meth- 
od followed  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  in  feeding  laying 
hens  is  as  follows: 

"Early  in  the  morning  for  each  100  hens  (Plymouth  Rocks), 
4  quarts  of  whole  corn  are  scattered  on  the  litter,  which  is  6  to 
8  inches  deep  on  the  floor.  This  is  not  mixed  into  the  litter,  for 
the  straw  is  dry  and  light,  and  enough  of  the  grain  is  hidden 
so  the  birds  commence  scratching  for  it  almost  immediately. 
At  10  o'clock  they  are  fed  in  the  same  way,  2  quarts  of  wheat 
and  2  quarts  of  oats.  This  is  all  the  regular  feeding  that  is 
done. 


STANDARDS  AND  RATIONS   FOR  POUI/TRY  267 

"Besides  the  dry  whole  grain  a  dry  mash  is  kept  always  be- 
fore the  birds.  Along  one  side  of  the  room  is  the  feed  trough 
with  its  slatted  front,  and  in  it  is  kept  a  supply  of  dry  meals 
mixed  together.  This  dry  meal  mixture  or  mash  has  the  fol- 
lowing composition : 

Parts 

by 
weight 

Wheat  bran    2 

Corn  meal 

Middlings 

Gluten  meal  or  dried  brewers'  grains   

Linseed  meal 

Beef  scrap 

"The  dry  meal  mixture  is  constantly  within  reach  of  all  the 
birds  and  they  help  themselves  at  will. 

"Oyster  shell,  dry  cracked  bone,  grit,  and  charcoal  are  kept 
in  slatted  troughs,  and  are  accessible  at  all  times.  A  moderate 
supply  of  mangolds  and  plenty  of  clean  water  are  furnished. 
About  5  Ibs.  of  clover  hay  cut  into  y2  inch  lengths  is  fed  dry 
daily  to  each  100  birds  in  winter. 

"The  average  amounts  of  the  materials  eaten  by  each  hen  dur- 
ing the  year  are  about  as  follows : 

Pounds 

Grain  and  the  meal  mixture 90.0 

Oyster  shell 4.0 

Dry  cracked  bone 2.4 

Grit 2.0 

Charcoal 2.4 

Clover 10.0 

The  following  ration  has  been  used  by  the  Kansas  Experiment 
Station,  Bui.  164,  in  feeding  White  Leghorns  and  White  Ply- 
mouth Rocks : 

GRAIN  MASH 

10  pounds  wheat  6  pounds  shorts 

10  pounds  corn  3  pounds  bran 

5  pounds  oats  6  pounds  corn  meal 

5  pounds  beef  scrap 
i  pound  alfalfa  meal 

"Between  February  i,  1909,  and  November  i,  1909,  one  White 
Plymouth  Rock  produced  201  eggs  and  another  196  eggs,  at  a 


268      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

cost  for  feed  of  90  cents  each.     The  Leghorns  averaged  166.1 
eggs  for  the  same  nine  months  at  a  slightly  less  cost. 

"The  above  ration  is  best  suited  to  fowls  which  are  confined 
and  have  no  chance  to  obtain  food  on  the  range.  A  very  prac- 
tical way  to  feed  it,  is  to  put  25  Ibs.  of  the  grain  in  a  bucket 
and  21  Ibs.  of  the  mash  in  a  hopper.  The  feed  in  these  two  ves- 
sels should  disappear  at  the  same  time.  Fowls  will  naturally 
eat  more  grain  than  they  will  the  dry  mash,  so  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  cut  down  on  the  grain  in  order  to  make  them  con- 
sume the  mash.  The  grain  should  be  fed  scattered  in  the  litter." 


SECTION  XXXVII. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  RAISING  LIVE-STOCK  AND  THE  FERTI- 
LIZER CONSTITUENTS  IN  FEEDS. 

Farm  Crops  Have  a  Double  Value. — Nitrogen,  phosphorus  and 
potassium  are  the  elements  which  are  generally  present  in  small 
amounts  in  the  soil  and  often  become  deficient  when  farm  crops 
are  sold.  The  other  elements  used  by  plants  are  usually  found 
in  sufficient  quantities  so  that  we  need  not  consider  them,  ex- 
cept occasionally  calcium.  The  fertility  that  is  taken  away 
from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  crops  may  best  be  restored  by 
feeding  these  crops  to  live-stock  and  applying  the  manure  to  the 
soil.  It  should  be  understood  that  when  farm  crops  are  sold  the 
fertilizing  value  is  lost  and  the  price  received  represents  only 
the  feeding  value. 

Effects  of  Farm  Manure. — The  chemical  composition  of  farm 
manure  is  not  a  true  indication  of  its  value.  It  serves  to  im- 
prove the  texture  and  condition  of  the  soil.  It  makes  the  plant 
food  that  is  stored  in  the  soil  available.  When  manure  is  put 
upon  the  land  it  decomposes  very  rapidly  on  account  of  its  al- 
ready partially  decayed  condition  and  fermentation  sets  in  and 
acids  are  formed  which  act  upon  unavailable  plant  food  and 
renders  it  available.  During  the  process  of  decay  humus  is 
formed  which  has  a  tendency  of  making  heavy  soils  (like  clay 
soils)  loose,  and  light  sandy  soils  more  binding.  It  increases 
soil  warmth  and  it  renders  the  moisture  conditions  of  the  soil 
more  satisfactory. 

The  Fertilizing  Value  of  manure  depends  upon  the  species  of 
animal,  age  of  animal,  kind  of  feed,  bedding  employed,  and  care 
in  husbanding.  Highly  nitrogenous  feeds  as  cotton-seed  meal, 
linseed  meal,  etc.  produce  a  more  valuable  manure  than  coarser 
feeds. 

Lasting  Qualities  of  Farm  Manure. — Manure  is  one  of  the  most 
efficient  fertilizers  for  the  farmer  to  use.  It  has  wonderful  last- 
ing qualities ;  one  good  application  will  last  for  many  years. 
The  Rothamstead  Experiment  Station  of  England  has  made 
valuable  experiments  with  manure  as  a  fertilizer  on  grass  and 


270      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


barley  to  show  its  almost  permanent  effect.  A  plot  of  grass 
land  received  14  tons  of  farm  manure  per  acre  for  8  years  and 
was  then  left  unmanured.  For  the  two  years  following  the  dis- 
continuance of  manure  the  crop  was  double  that  of  the  un- 
manured plot;  yet  the  yield  has  slowly  declined  from  year  to 
year  but  has  averaged  15  per  cent,  more  than  the  unmanured 
plot.  The  barley  experiment  is  as  follows :  The  first  plot  re- 
ceived an  application  of  14  tons  of  farm  manure  per  acre  for 
20  years  (1852-71)  and  since  that  time  has  been  left  unmanured. 
Another  plot  has  been  left  unmanured  during  the  entire  period 
since  1852.  The  yield  on  the  first  plot  for  twenty  years  after 
the  application  of  manure  was  discontinued,  was  30  bushels 
per  acre  per  year,  while  the  unmanured  plot  where  nothing  was 
applied  gave  an  average  yield  of  13  bushels  per  acre  per  year. 
Amount  of  Manure  Voided  by  Animals. — It  is  estimated  by 
Heiden  that  for  every  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  fed  there  are, 

210  pounds  of  fresh  manure  voided  by  the  horse, 
380  pounds  of  fresh  manure  voided  by  the  cow,  and 
1 80  pounds  of  fresh  manure  voided  by  the  sheep. 

Snyder1  estimates  that  a  well  fed  horse  will  produce  about  50 
Ibs.  of  manure  per  day  of  which  one  quarter  will  be  urine.  A 
horse  will  produce  about  6  tons  of  manure  per  year  in  the  stable. 
A  milch  cow  will  produce  from  60-70  Ibs.  of  total  manure  of 
which  20-30  Ibs.  are  liquid.  He  estimates  that  a  well  fed  cow 
will  produce  about  80  Ibs.  of  manure  per  day  including  absorbents. 

Composition  of  Manure. — The  following  table  gives  the  compo- 
sition of  solid  and  liquid  manure  from  some  farm  animals : 


Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

Lime2 

Solids 

Liquids 

Solids 

Liquids 

Solids 

Liquids 

Solids 

Total 

percent. 

per  cent. 

percent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

Cows  

76. 

89. 

0.50 

1.20 

0-35 



0.30 

0.31 

Horses  .  . 

84. 

92. 

0.30 

0.86 

0.25 



O.IO 

O.2I 

Pigs  

80. 

97- 

O.6o 

0.8o 

0-45 

0.12 

0.50 

0.08 

Sheep  .  .  . 

58. 

86.5 

o.75 

1.40 

0.60 

0.05 

030 

0-33 

The  above  table  shows  that  the  liquid  portion  is  richest  in 


1  "Soils  and  Fertilizers.' 

2  Approximate. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    RAISING    LIVE-STOCK  27! 

nitrogen  and  this  fact  should  impress  one  with  the  necessity  of 
absorbing  and  saving  the  urine.  The  phosphoric  acid  is  only 
present  in  traces  in  the  urine  of  horses  and  cattle  but  is  quite 
considerable  in  the  liquid  portions  from  sheep  and  swine. 

Value  of  Manure. — The  following  are  average  values  of  farm 
manures  when  nitrogen  is  valued  at  15  cents  a  pound,  phosphoric 
acid  at  7  cents  and  potash  at  4^/2  cents  :* 

Value 
per  ton 

Horse  $  2.49 

Cow 2.43 

Sheep 4-25 

Pig 3  20 

Continued  Cropping  Exhausts  the  Soil. — In  the  New  England 
States  the  continual  selling  of  farm  crops  has  exhausted  the  soil 
on  many  of  the  farms  of  a  great  deal  of  its  fertility.  In  some 
localities,  150-200  Ibs.  of  commercial  fertilizer  formerly  pro- 
duced as  good  returns  as  1000-1200  Ibs.  do  now.  Because  of  the 
continual  selling  of  farm  crops  without  maintaining  soil  fertility, 
we  have  many  abandoned  farms  in  the  older  sections  of  this 
country. 

Now  in  order  to  get  this  valuable  fertilizer,  farm  manure,  to 
keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  we  must  raise  live-stock  or  pur- 
chase manure. 

If  live-stock  are  kept  on  the  farm  and  fed  the  farm  products, 
80-90  per  cent,  of  the  fertilizer  value  of  the  crops  may  be  saved 
and  put  back  on  the  land  and  the  full  feed  value  may  be  realized. 

Idle  Lands  may  be  Made  Profitable. — The  feeding  of  live-stock 
makes  it  profitable  to  pasture  lands  that  are  too  poor  for  the 
growing  of  the  ordinary  cultivated  crops.  In  this  way  the  land 
that  is  ordinarily  idle  may  be  utilized. 

Reducing  Freight  Charges. — Live-stock  create  a  market  for 
selling  farm  crops  in  a  more  condensed  form.  It  takes  about 
7-12  Ibs.  of  farm  products  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  and  by 
feeding  the  farm  products  to  live-stock  the  weight  of  these  prod- 
ucts is  reduced  1/7  to  1/12,  which  is  a  great  saving  in  the 
freight  charges  of  marketing. 

1  Roberts,  "The  Fertility  of  the  Land." 


2/2      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

A  Market  for  Cheap  and  Coarse  Feed  Stuffs. — Around  every 
farm  there  are  many  coarse  farm  products  and  other  materials 
which  would  ordinarily  be  wasted  if  live-stock  are  not  kept. 
Corn  stover,  straw,  damaged  and  shrunken  grain,  and  other 
similar  farm  products  do  not  bring  much  on  the  market  but  may 
be  utilized  to  good  advantage  in  feeding  stock.  Often  certain 


Fig.  23.— Hay  should  be  raised  at  home. 

hays  hardly  pay  the  cost  of  marketing  and  may  be  profitably  used 
in  such  cases  for  feeding  live-stock. 

Growing  of  Legumes. — When  live-stock  are  kept  on  the  farm 
the  growing  of  legumes  is  very  profitable  as  they  increase  the 
soil  fertility  and  serve  as  cheap  feed  for  furnishing  the  protein 
so  necessary  in  animal  production.  Many  of  the  leguminous 
crops  will  not  bring  their  real  value  when  sold  but  when  utilized 
for  feeding  live-stock  become  very  profitable  crops  for  the  farmer 
to  raise. 


IMPORTANCE:  OF  RAISING  UVE-STOCK  273 

Roots  and  Tubers. — In  the  South  roots  as  mangels  and  turnips 
may  often  be  profitably  raised  during  the  winter  when  the  land 
is  ordinarily  idle.  These  crops  do  not  interfere  with  the  raising 
of  cotton,  corn,  etc.,  because  they  may  be  harvested  in  time  to 
plant  the  summer  crops.  When  the  market  prices  for  Irish  and 
sweet  potatoes  are  low  these  crops  may  be  fed  to  live-stock. 

Labor. — The  raising  of  live-stock  furnishes  employment  for  the 
hands  throughout  the  year.  By  being  able  to  keep  labor  the  year 
round  is  usually  more  satisfactory  and  cheaper  than  to  employ 
hands  for  a  part  of  the  year. 

Mixed  Husbandry  the  Most  Profitable. — Because  of  the  main- 
taining and  often  increasing  of  soil  fertility,  and  the  utilization 
of  cheap  feeds  that  would  ordinarily  be  thrown  away,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  raising  of  live-stock  in  conjunction  with 
general  farm  crops  is  perhaps  the  most  profitable.  We  have  only 
to  look  to  the  older  farming  sections  to  learn  that  mixed  hus- 
bandry has  proved  to  be  the  most  profitable.  Of  course  on  new 
lands  the  farmer  often  realizes  a  good  profit  by  raising  single 
crops,  but  such  lands  invariably  deteriorate  and  it  is  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time  when  such  single  crop  farming  will  have  to  be 
abandoned. 

Raise  Products  at  Home. — The  farmer  of  to-day  should  realize 
the  economy  of  raising  animal  products  and  feed  stuffs  for  home 
consumption.  It  seems  strange  to  know  that  in  some  sections, 
where  single  crop  farming  is  practiced,  that  farmers  purchase  a 
great  deal  of  food  from  the  merchant,  often  at  exorbitant  prices, 
that  could  be  easily  and  cheaply  raised  at  home.  Some  of  these 
products  that  are  purchased  are,  butter,  milk,  cheese,  eggs,  meat, 
vegetables,  fruits,  feed  stuffs  for  live-stock,  and  similar  products. 
The  farmer  should  always  aim  to  have  something  to  sell  and  not 
be  forced  to  continually  buy  if  he  wishes  to  be  prosperous  and 
happy.  Some  products  of  course  must  be  purchased  but  any- 
thing that  the  farm  will  produce  should  be  grown  at  home. 

The  following  table,  the  work  of  American  and  foreign  in- 
vestigators will  acquaint  the  student  with  the  fertilizer  constit- 
uents in  feed  stuffs : 


274      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  AMERICAN  FEED  STUFFS 


Name  of  feed 


Water 
per  cent. 


Ash 
per  cent 


Nitrogen 
percent 


'hosphoric 

acid 
per  cent. 


Potassium 

oxide 
per  cent. 


CONCENTRATES 


Barley 14.30 

Beet  pulp  (dried ) 8.00 

Brewers'  grains  (dried) 6.98 

Brewers'  grains  ( wet) 75-01 

Broom  corn  seed 14. 10 

Buckwheat 14. 10 

Buckwheat  middlings 14.70 

Corn  (grain) 10.88 

Corn  bran 9.10 

Corn  and  cob  meal 8.96 

Cotton-seed  ( raw ) 10.30 

Cotton-seed  meal 9.90 

Cowpea  seed 14. 80 

Distillers'  dried  grains 8.00 

Flax-seed 9. 20 

Flour  ( dark  feeding ) 9. 70 

Flour  (high  grade) 12.20 

Flour  (low  grade ) 12.00 

Germ  meal 8.  ro 

Gluten  meal 8.59 

Gluten  feed 8.50 

Grano-gluten 5.80 

Hominy  chops 11.10 

Hominy  meal 11.00 

Horse  bean 11.30 

Unseed  meal  (old  process)  ••  8.88 

Linseed  meal  (new  process)  •  •  7.77 

Malt  sprouts 10.38 

Millet  seed 14.00 

Molasses  (beet) 20.80 

Molasses  (cane,  blackstrap)  .  22.40 

Oats  11.00 

Oat  dust 6.50 

Oat  feed  (shorts) 7.70 

Oat  meal 7.90 

Peanut  meal 10.70 

Peas 10.50 

Rape-seed  meal 10.00 

Rice  (clean) 12.80 

Rice  bran  (impure) 9.90 

Rice  polish     10.30 

Rye 1 1 .60 

Rye  bran 11.60 

Rye  shorts 9.30 

Soja  (soy)  bean 10.80 

Sorghum  seed 12.80 

Sun  flower  seed 8. 60 

Sunflower  seed  cake 10.80 


2.48 
5-40 
6.15 

1. 00 

3-40 

2.00 
1.40 

1-53 
1.30 
1.50 
3.50 
6.82 
3.20 
1.70 
4.20 

4-3° 
0.60 

2.00 
1.30 

o.73 
1.70 
2.80 
2.50 
2.50 
3.80 
6.08 

5-37 

5-72 

3-30 

1 0.60 

9-30 
3.00 
6.90 
3-70 

2.OO 
4.90 
2.60 
7.90 
0.70 
13.00 
3-50 
1.90 
4.60 
5-90 
4.70 
2.IO 
2.60 
6.70 


•51 
.60 

•05 
0.89 

.63 
.44 
.tf 

.82 

.63 

.41 

3.13 
6.64 

3-33 
4-50 


2.89 
2.65 
5-03 
3-84 
4.98 
1.63 
1.66 
4.07 
5-43 
5.78 
3-55 
2.04 
1.46 

0-47 
2.06 
2.16 
1.72 
2-35 
7.56 
3.08 
4.96 
i.  08 
0.71 
1.97 
i.76 
2.32 
1.84 
5-30 
1.48 
2.28 
5-55 


0.79 
0.16 
1.26 
0.31 

o.44 
0.68 
0.70 

I.2F 

0.57 
1.27 
2.68 

o.6r 

1-39 
2.14 

0.22 
0.56 
0.80 

o-33 
o  41 

0.51 

0.98 

1.25 
i.  20 
1.66 
1.83 

1-43 
0.85 
0.05 
0.14 
0.82 

0.91 


0.82 

2.OO 

o.iS 
0.29 
0.30 
0.82 
2.28 
1.26 
1.87 
0.81 

1.22 
2.15 


0.48 
1.47 
1.55 
0.05 

0.21 

0-34 
0.40 

0.68 
0.47 
I.I? 
1.79 

0.31 
1.03 
1.09 
0.15 
0-35 
0.50 
0.05 
0.03 
0.15 
0.49 
0.78 
1.29 
1-37 
i-39 
1.63 
0.36 

5.63 
3-7o 
0.62 

0-53 

1.50 
0.99 
1.30 
0.09 
0.24 
0.71 

0.54 

1.40 
0.81 
1.99 
0.42 
0.56 
1.17 


IMPORTANCE;  OF  RAISING  LIVE-STOCK 


275 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  AMERICAN  FEED  STUFFS.— (Continued) 


Name  of  feed 

Water 
per  cent. 

Ash 
per  cent. 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Phosphoric 
acid    . 
per  cent. 

Potassium 
oxide 
per  cent. 

CONCENTRATES—  (  Continued  ) 

10.50 
11.90 
12.10 
II.  60 
II.SO 

13.20 
lO.yO 
II.  10 

7-30 

9.00 

75.30 
75.00 
85.00 

81.80 
80.00 
82.50 
81.00 
79.10 
76.00 
78.81 
71.60 
84.20 
74.85 
85.35 
83-15 
62.58 
71.10 
80.00 
74.00 
79.00 
83-36 
80.00 

73-14 
63.12 
75.20 
84.36 
85.00 
76.60 
82.59 
75-10 
79.40 
66.90 
84.50 

8.40 

1.  80 
6.30 
3-30 
2.90 
4.60 

2.  2O 
I.4O 
2.80 
6.60 
18.30 

2.25 
1.05 
1.20 

1-47 
i.45 
1.42 

1.40 
2.40 

1.47 
1-93 

2.84 
0.96 

1.20 

1.70 
1.  10 

2.80 

1.31 
1.  80 
2.O9 

3-27 
2.60 

2-45 

2.IO 
1.82 
2.60 
1.  10 

2.15 
1.94 

7-40 

2.36 
2.67 
2.63 
2.44 
2.82 

0-49 
0.50 
0.69 
0.52 
0.58 

0.72 
0.32 
0.50 
0.44 
o.53 
o.43 
0.56 
0.28 
0.79 
0.27 

1-13 
0.68 

0-54 
0.44 
0.51 
0.61 

0-39 
0-53 
0.26 
0.42 
0.49 
0-43 
o.43 
0.91 

0.47 
0.42 

o.34 
o.33 
0.41 
0.29 
0.23 
0.48 
0.59 

2.19 

0.79 
2.89 

0-95 
I.I7 

i-35 

0.07 
0.06 
0.25 
0.24 
0.17 

0.13 
0.15 

0.12 
0.  II 
O.I3 
O.I3 
O.2O 
O.I  I 
O.42 
O.IO 

0.18 

0.33 

0.29 

0.35 

O.I  I 

0.19 
0.16 

0.20 

0.14 

O.  II 

0.13 

0.14 
0.16 

0.23 
0.28 

O.I  I 
O.IO 

0.15 

0.14 

0.15 

0.09 
0.26 

1.19 
0.51 

0.50 
I.6l 

0.63 
0.84 
0-59 

0.52 
0.6o 
1.02 
0.52 
0.14 

0.56 
O.4O 
0.38 
O.2O 
0.46 
0.49 
O.24 

0-37 
0.44 

0.31 
0.5« 
1-37 
I.I4 

1.73 
0.15 
0.41 

0.55 
o.34 
0.62 

0.44 
0.38 
0.30 
0.76 
o.75 

1.  10 

o.75 
0.78 

o.73 
0.42 

0-53 
0.23 
0.76 
0.70 

1.68 

\Wipflfr  <;Viort«; 

WASTE  PRODUCTS  (low  grade) 

Oat  hulls            

Rice  hulls  •  •          

GREEN  FODDERS 
Alfalfa  

Canada  field,  pea  

Clover  (  alsike)  

Clover  (  red  )  

Olovpr  (whitp^ 

Corn  and  soy  bean  silage  .... 

Flat  pea 

Millet  (  common  )  

Millet  (Hungarian  grass)  

Millet  Nilap-p^ 

Millet  and  soy  bean  silage.  .  - 
Oat  fodder 

Rape  

Rye  fodder  

Serradella 

Timothy  •            •                 

HAY  AND  DRY  COARSE  FOD- 
DERS 

Alfalfa 

276      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE   ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  AMERICAN  FEED  STUFFS.— (Continued) 


Name  of  feed 

Water 
per  cent. 

Ash 
per  cent. 

Nitrogen 
per  cent 

Phosphoric 
acid 
per  cent. 

Potassium 
oxide 
per  cent. 

HAY  AND  DRY  COARSE  FOD- 
DERS —  (Continued) 

1  6.  00 
10.00 
8.22 
9.76 

9-94 

7.43 

9.60 
15.00 
15.00 

7.85 

9.12 

14.00 
16.00 
8.71 
5-72 

10.35 
8.89 
15.35 
9.75 
7.69 
10.45 
11.99 
15.00 
8.84 
9.65 
9.13 
7.71 

16.60 
12.17 

7-39 
15.00 
11.30 
9-39 
15-35 
6.06 
13.20 
1.5.00 
10.30 

14.20 
13.08 
15.00 
9.20 
7.10 
10.  10 

13.65 
12.52 
II.  II 
7.70 
8.60 
6.30 
6.20 

4.91 
3.74 
5-30 

6.40 
4.16 

8.08 
5.24 

6.18 

5.  So 

6-34 
5.20 
6.42 
6.37 
6.79 
4-59 
6.80 

7-55 
1  0.60 
1.40 
7.20 

4.92 

6-53 
4.40 
7.40 
6.60 

5.80 

5-10 
3.20 
5.8o 

1.  06 
0.87 
I.Q2 
3-13 
2-34 
1.98 
2.05 
2.14 
2.07 

2-75 
.76 

.04 

34 
.18 

•19 
•63 
.19 

99 
•54 
.28 

.20 
.11 
.41 
.90 

28 
.23 
•15 
.61 
2.63 
2.70 

0.61 
2.32 
2.46 
1.16 
1.46 
1.26 
i.  80 
0.26 

1-31 

1.  01 

0.68 
0.62 
0.46 
1-75 

0.19 

0.47 

0.54 
0.61 
0.67 
0.56 
0.40 
0.52 
0.48 
0.52 

0.54 
0.29 
0.32 
0.18 
0.56 
0.85 
0.40 
0.40 
0.44 
o.49 
0-35 
0.40 
0.27 
0.65 
0.41 

0.44 
0.56 
0.36 

0-43 
0.76 
0.78 
0.07 
0.67 

o.45 
032 

0.55 
o.53 
0.60 
0.41 

0.30 
0.27 
0.18 

0.20 

0.28 
0.40 

0.87 
1.87 
2.8o 
4.88 
2.23 
1.83 

i-3* 

i.  80 

2.20 
I.8l 
0.89 
I.4O 

1.61 

0-95 
1.27 
3-32 
1-57 

2.10 

•99 

.69 

•30 

.22 

•  55 
.90 
.88 
.25 
•55 
.02 

•49 

2.02 
0.65 
0.56 

1.08 

2.09 
1.72 
3-70 
0.90 
1.27 
1.18 

2.09 
0.99 

1.73 
1.24 

o.79 
1.32 

Broom  corn  stalks  (waste)  •  •  • 

Clover  (  Bokhara) 

Olovpr  (  red  ^ 

Corn  fodder  (without  ears)  .  . 
English  hay  (mixed  grasses)  • 
Fox  grass  

Italian  rye  grass  

Japanese  buckwheat  

Kentucky  blue  grass  

Meadow  fescue  grass  

Millet  (  Hungarian  grass  )  
Millet  (  Japanese)  

Oat  fodder  

Red  top  •            

Sov  bean  (whole  plant) 
Sulla  .           

Teosinte             •  •       

Timothy               

Vetch  and  oats  (i   i  ")  

STRAW 

Barlev  chaff  

IMPORTANCE    OF    RAISING    LIVESTOCK 


277 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  AMERICAN  FEED  STUFFS. — (Continued) 


Name  of  feed 

Water 
per  cent. 

Ash 
per  cent 

Nitrogen 
per  cent 

Phosphoric 
acid 
per  cent. 

Potassium 
oxide 
per  cent. 

STRAW—  (Continued) 

9.60 
14.30 

78.00 
90.9 
88.50 
86.50 
89.00 
88.60 

88.00 
86.30 
78.90 
93.00 
88.60 
90.50 

12.50 
90.10 
74.60 
90.60 
90.40 
93.80 
87.20 

78.00 
90.50 
8.50 
10.80 
10.70 
86.80 
75-60 
88.00 

4.2O 
9.20 

I.OO 
1.  10 
I.OO 

0.90 
1.  20 

0-59 
0.79 

0.26 
0.19 
0.24 
0.22 
0.23 

0.15 
0.15 

0.18 

0.21 

0.08 

0.19 
0.18 

0.19 
0.48 
2.82 
0.56 
0.56 
0.15 
o.53 

0.12 
0.38 
I3-50 
7-75 

H-39 

O.I  I 

0.38 
0.41 

0.12 

0.70 

0.14 
0.09 
0.09 
O.IO 
O.I  I 

0.09 
0.14 

0.20 

0.07 
0.05 

O.I  2 

O.  IO 

0.17 

0.66 

O.2O 
O.2O 
0.14 
O.I9 

0.01 
O.I  I 

i-35 

12.  OO 
O.7O 

0.16 

0.25 
0.15 

0.51 
0.42 

0.47 
0.38 
0.44 
0.48 
0.56 
0.51 

0-34 
0.44 
0.29 
0.40 
0.49 
o-39 

0.16 

O.  II 

o.  19 
0.19 
0.18 
0.18 

0.17 

0-43 
0.77 

O.2O 
O.IO 
O.O9 

0.59 
0.62 

Whfflfr  rViflfF 

ROOTS,  TUBERS,  ETC. 

Beet  (red)  

Carrot"  

Mangold  

0.70 

I.OO 

Potato  (  Irish  )  

1.  20 

0.80 

0.70 

1.50 

0.70 
0.70 
0.40 
0.60 

1.40 

4.70 

29.20 
4.10 
0.90 
4.00 
2.40 

Turnip  (  flat  ) 

DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Butter 

Buttermilk  •  •  • 

Whey  ... 

Whole  milk  

MISCELLANEOUS 

Dried  fish  • 

Suggestion:  Have  the  students  figure  the  values  of  the 
fertilizer  constituents  in  one  ton  of  several  feed  stuffs,  valuing 
nitrogen  at  17  cents  a  pound,  and  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  at 
5  cents  a  pound.  Have  them  observe  the  amount  of  fertility 
removed  from  an  acre  of  land  by  some  of  the  popular  crops 
grown  in  the  locality.  Assume  a  few  common  rations  fed  to 
different  classes  of  live-stock  in  the  locality  and  let  the  students 
calculate  the  yearly  values  of  the  manure  obtained. 


SECTION  XXXVIII. 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS  FOR  STOCK  FARMS. 

All  over  this  country  there  are  certain  farmers  who  manage 
their  lands  better  than  others  and  thus  make  greater  profits. 
These  farmers  are  not  plentiful  but  are  scattered  about  and  give 
us  practical  examples  of  farming  systems  best  adapted  to  their 
localities.  The  cropping  systems  for  stock  farms  vary  of  course 
with  the  nature  of  stock,  nature  of  the  crops  grown,  locality 
of  the  farm,  nature  of  the  land,  size  of  the  farm,  price  of  labor, 
results  desired,  etc. 

Cropping  systems  are  well  illustrated  by  Spillman  in  the  1907 
Year-book  of  the  United  States  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  from  which 
the  following  is  taken : 

"Rotation  Defined. — A  rotation  of  crops  is  a  succession  of 
crops,  one  following  another  on  the  same  land.  If  these  crops 
continually  recur  in  a  fixed  order,  the  rotation  is  a  definite  one. 
If  they  recur  at  regular  intervals,  the  rotation  is  said  to  be  a 
fixed  rotation.  A  definite  rotation  may  not  be  a  fixed  rotation; 
for  example,  in  many  parts  of  the  country  it  is  customary  to  leave 
grass  lands  down  from  three  to  six  or  more  years,  the  length  of 
time  depending  on  the  condition  of  the  sod,  the  supply  of  labor, 
feed  requirements  of  stock,  etc.  When  the  sod  is  plowed  up, 
the  land  is  planted  in  corn,  then  wheat  is  sown,  and  grass  fol- 
lows. This  rotation  is  perfectly  definite  as  to  the  crops  grown 
and  the  order  in  which  these  crops  follow  each  other,  but  it  is 
not  fixed  as  to  the  number  of  years  it  occupies. 

"Fixed  rotations  are  not  objectionable  on  farms  that  grow 
crops  for  sale,  provided,  of  course,  the  crops  are  such  as  bring 
a  satisfactory  profit  and  proper  measures  are  taken  to  conserve 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  We  shall  later  see  also  that  fixed1 
rotations  are  practically  necessary  on  certain  types  of  stock 
farms  where  one  or  more  of  the  crops  in  the  rotation  are  used 
for  pasture,  and  where,  consequently,  the  fields  must  be  separate- 
ly fenced.  But  a  single  fixed  rotation  practically  never  produces 
crops  in  the  needed  proportions  on  the  stock  farm.  Hence,  the 
stockman  who  runs  a  single  fixed  rotation  covering  his  whole 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR    STOCK    FARMS  279 

farm  practically  always  has  a  surplus  of  some  kinds  of  feed  or  a 
shortage  of  others.  For  this  reason  he  is  compelled  to  keep 
less  stock  than  his  farm  would  support  with  a  properly  planned 
cropping  system  unless  he  is  in  a  position  to  buy  feed  that  may 
be  lacking. 

"Examples  of  Simple  and  Complex  Rotations. — While  a  single 
fixed  rotation  produces  crops  in  fixed  proportions,  except  for 
variations  in  yield,  and  is  thus  inflexible,  two  rotations  can 
nearly  always  be  so  arranged  as  to  produce  any  given  crops  in 
any  desired  proportion.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  dairy 
farmer  desires  to  produce  annually  15  acres  of  corn  for  silage, 
20  acres  of  corn  for  grain,  25  acres  of  oats  for  grain,  and  60 
acres  of  hay.  He  can  do  this  by  arranging  two  three-year 
rotations  as  follows : 

A  SYSTEM  OF  Two  SIMPLE  ROTATIONS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM 

First  series  Second  series 

First  year 35  acres  corn  First  year- .  5  acres  pea  and  oat  hay 

Q          -,  (25  acres  oats  Second  year.   5   acres  timothy  and 

r  \  i  o  acres  pea  and  oat  hay        clover  hay 

Third  year  ..  35    acres    timothy   and    Third  year...  5   acres  timothy  and 
clover  clover  hay 

"This  gives  the  exact  acreage  of  each  crop  desired.     If,  in  the 
above  cropping  system,  the  area  of  oats  exceeds  that  of  corn,  the 
requirements  being,  say,  20  acres  of  corn,  25  acres  of  oats,  and 
60  acres  of  hay,  we  can  arrange  the  rotations  as  follows : 
A  SECOND  SYSTEM  OF  Two  SIMPLE  ROTATIONS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM. 

First  series  Second  series 

r    20  acres  in  corn  for     First  Io  acres    in 

First  year....    -           grain  and  oats  for  hay 
I   5  acres  in  a  hay  crop 

Second  year. ...  25  acres  in  oats  for  Second  year 10  acres  in  timothy 

grain  and  clover  for  hay 

Third  year 25  acres  in  timothy  Third  year 10  acres  in  timothy 

and  clover  for  hay  and  clover  for  hay 

"The  general  plan  in  the  foregoing  scheme  of  two  rotations 
is  to  fill  in  the  vacancies  of  the  first  and  more  usual  rotation  by 
putting  in  some  other  crop  which  is  grown  mainly  in  the  second 
rotation.  The  scheme  is  therefore  an  elastic  one,  well  suited 


280      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

especially  to  dairy  farms  on  which  the  pasture  is  provided  out- 
side of  the  regular  rotations. 

"There  is  always  a  way  of  planning  a  single  complex  rotation 
which  has  the  same  elasticity  as  the  two-rotation  systems  before 
outlined  and  which  is  even  better  than  the  two-rotation  system  on 
most  farms.  The  two  systems  given  before  may  be  arranged  as 
follows : 

COMBINATION  OF  THE  FOREGOING  TWO-ROTATION  SYSTEMS  INTO 
SINGLE  COMPLEX  ROTATIONS 

First  system  Second  system 

f  35  acres  in  corn  for  f  2O  acres  in  corn 

Firstyear"1  5Eo^r and  Firstyear 

f   25    acres   in    oats    for  f 

Second  year  \    ™  acres  in  peas  and  Second    ear  <j     ?0  acres  Tn  Timothy 
i      sacresindmoVand  and  clover  for  hay 

L         clover  for  hay  [ 

Third  year. .  40  acres  in  timothy  and  Third  year.  .35  acres  in  timothy  and 
clover  for  hay  clover  for  hay 

"The  first  of  these  complex  rotations  gives  the  same  acreage 
of  each  crop  as  the  first  set  of  two  rotations  previously  given, 
and  the  second  the  same  as  the  second  set  of  two  rotations. 
While  these  last  two  rotations  are  technically  called  complex 
rotations,  they  form  systems  which  are  really  simpler  than  the 
two-rotation  scheme,  and  we  generally  use  rotations  of  this  type 
in  planning  cropping  systems  for  dairy  farms. 

"This  type  of  rotation  is  exceedingly  elastic.  It  not  only  per- 
mits each  crop  to  be  grown  in  exactly  the  proportion  needed,  but 
it  can  be  varied  in  many  ways  by  substituting  other  crops  for 
those  shown  in  the  outlines  above.  For  instance,  in  the  first  of 
these  complex  rotations,  instead  of  plowing  up  the  whole  40  acres 
of  timothy  and  clover,  we  may  leave  5  acres  to  take  the  place 
of  the  peas  and  oats  in  the  first  year.  This  5  acres  may  remain 
down  indefinitely,  as  long  as  the  yield  is  satisfactory,  and  when 
necessary  it  may  be  plowed  up  and  sown  to  peas  and  oats,  to  be 
followed  by  timothy  and  clover  again  without  losing  a  crop  of 
hay. 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR    STOCK   FARMS  28l 

"Again,  we  may  sow  10  acres  of  timothy  and  clover  in  the 
corn-field  of  year  i  to  take  the  place  of  the  10  acres  of  peas  and 
oats  in  year  2.  Similar  modifications  may  be  made  in  the  second 
complex  rotation.  This  is  exactly  the  type  of  cropping  system 
that  has  been  developed  by  the  shrewd  New  England  dairy 
farmer  whose  small  holdings  will  not  permit  him  to  grow  a 
fixed,  inelastic  rotation  that  does  not  produce  the  crops  in  the 
proportion  in  which  he  wants  them.  Such  a  system  enables  the 
farmer  to  keep  a  maximum  herd  on  his  farm. 

"It  is,  of  course,  recognized  that  variations  in  yield  from 
year  to  year  will  cause  considerable  variation  in  the  quantity  of 
each  crop  produced.  This  variation  is  especially  likely  to  occur 
on  poor  soils ;  it  is  much  less  on  farms  that  have  exceedingly 
rich  soil.  Nevertheless,  the  farmer  is  compelled  to  lay  some 
kind  of  plan  for  meeting  such  variations  in  yield.  Any  scheme 
has  value  if  it  enables  the  farmer  to  approach  more  nearly  to  the 
ideal  of  his  plans,  and  cropping  systems  like  the  complex  rota- 
tions outlined  will  do  this." 

How  to  Plan  a  Cropping  System. — The  following  is  taken  from 
Spillman's  article  in  the  1907  Year-book  United  States  Dept. 
of  Agriculture : 

"The  method  of  managing  hogs  assumed  in  the  following  is 
adapted  to  the  latitude  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Southern  Missouri,  and  Northern  Arkansas.  It  as- 
sumes that  winter  grain  can  be  made  available  for  pasture  prac- 
tically throughout  the  winter.  When  pasture  is  not  available,  some 
clover  hay  cut  from  the  summer  pasture  is  fed.  A  small  area  of 
soy-bean  hay  may  also  be  grown  for  winter  feed  for  the  hogs. 
Fixed  rotations  are  necessary  in  this  type  of  farming,  because 
each  field  must  be  permanently  fenced.  Experience  has  shown 
that  with  good  pasture  10  bushels  of  corn  will,  on  the  average, 
make  a  fall  pig  weigh  about  170  pounds  by  July.  The  same  quan- 
tity of  corn,  with  good  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture,  will  carry  a 
spring  pig  to  190  or  200  pounds  by  December  or  January.  The 
pigs  are  supposed  to  be  fed  about  all  the  corn  they  will  eat  up 
clean  once  a  day — late  in  the  afternoon.  It  will  require  about  25 
bushels  of  corn  to  feed  a  sow  on  pasture  for  a  year.  The  sows  are 
19 


282    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


supposed  to  run  on  pasture  with  the  pigs  until  the  pigs  are  about 
ten  weeks  old.  The  sows  are  then  removed  to  their  own  special 
pasture,  where  they  are  bred,  and  remain  till  the  next  litter  of 
pigs  is  farrowed.  Good  winter  wheat  pasture  will  carry  about 
6  pigs  to  the  acre.  Good  clover  pasture  will  carry  12  pigs  to  the 
acre  till  July,  after  which  it  will  carry  half  as  many.  By  sow- 
ing wheat  and  clover  in  corn  in  August  we  get  our  winter 
and  summer  pasture  on  the  same  land,  so  that  I  acre  of  pasture 
suffices  for  6  fall  and  6  spring  pigs. 

"Estimating  corn  at  60  bushels  per  acre,  3  horses  will  re- 
quire 4^2  acres  of  corn.  If  hay  yields  1^2  tons  per  acre,  the 
horses  will  require  5^2  acres  of  hay.  If  a  sow  produces  on  the 
average  14  pigs  a  year  in  two  litters,  then  for  each  sow  kept  the 
requirements  are  as  follows: 

AMOUNT  AND  ACREAGE  OF  CORN  AND  ACREAGE  OF  PASTURE  NEEDED 
TO  SUPPORT  ONE  Sow  WITH  PIGS  FOR  A  YEAR. 

Acres 

FEED  FOR  i  Sow 

Corn,  25  bushels • 0.42 

Special  pasture o.  20 

FEED  FOR  14  PIGS 

Corn,  140  bushels 2.33 

Pasture 1. 17 

Total 4-12 

"Deducting  10  acres  required  to  raise  feed  for  the  horses,  we 
have  on  a  6o-acre  farm  50  acres  to  be  devoted  to  hog  raising. 
This  divided  by  4.12  gives  12.11 ;  i.  e.,  we  can  keep  12  sows  and 
raise  168  pigs. 

The  approximate  acreage  of  each  crop  would  be  as  follows: 

TOTAL  ACREAGE  OF  EACH  CROP  NEEDED  ON  A  HOG  FARM  IN  A  REGION 
A  LITTLE  SOUTH  OF  MIDDLE  LATITUDE 


Crop 

For  3 
horses 

For  12 
sows 

For  168 
pigs 

Total 

Corn  

acres 

A    Z 

acres 

A   8<> 

acres 
28  24 

acres 

37.  SO 

"Rav 

5C 

c   CQ 

•o 

2  4.O 

14,1^ 

l6.C7 

CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR   STOCK   FARMS  283 

SCHEME  OF  ROTATION  FOR  A  HOG  FARM  IN  A  REGION  A  LITTLE 
SOUTH  OF  MIDDLE  LATITUDE 

First  rotation  Second  rotation 

First  year ...   14  acres  in  corn  and  cow-     First  year . .  6  acres  of  corn 
peas 

Second  year.   14  acres  in  corn,  wheat     ~  „  v    ,  ,  f  3.6  acres  of  corn 

and  clover  '  \  2.4  acres  of  hay 


Third  year  ...-<    2.4    acres    of    sow 
pasture 

"By  feeding  a  good  deal  of  corn  stover  to  horses,  there  ought 
to  be  hay  enough  to  feed  a  cow  on  this  farm.  A  fair  crop  of 
hay  may  be  cut  from  the  pig  pasture  about  the  first  of  July.  This 
hay  will  contain  a  good  deal  of  wheat  straw,  but  will  answer  very 
well  for  pig  feed  in  winter.  The  sow  pasture  will  have  to  be 
fenced  off  each  year  with  a  temporary  fence. 

"On  account  of  the  variation  in  yields,  in  some  years  there 
will  be  more  corn  than  can  be  utilized,  while  in  other  years  there 
will  be  less  than  is  needed.  This  is  true  in  all  forms  of  live-stock 
farming.  Some  men  meet  this  difficulty  by  keeping  fewer  ani- 
mals than  the  farm  would  support  with  average  yields,  and  thus 
in  good  years  have  some  crops  for  sale.  Others  meet  it  by 
changing  the  number  of  animals  from  year  to  year  to  suit  condi- 
tions. Still  others  keep  a  maximum  number  of  animals  and  buy 
feed  when  needed.  As  before  stated,  everyone  must  be  his  own 
judge  in  matters  of  this  kind. 

"In  the  system  of  hog  management  outlined  it  is  clear  that  in 
a  section  where  corn  can  be  bought  at  a  price  that  permits  it  to 
be  fed  to  hogs  with  a  profit,  the  limit  to  the  number  of  hogs  that 
can  be  kept  on  the  farm  is  the  area  of  pasture  that  can  be  pro- 
vided. With  a  winter  cereal  and  clover  furnishing  this  pasture, 
it  would  be  possible  to  keep  half  the  land  in  pasture  by  growing 
a  two-year  rotation  of  corn  followed  by  wheat  and  clover,  these 
being  sown  together  in  August  in  the  corn. 

"To  ascertain  the  number  of  hogs  60  acres  may  be  made  to 
support  under  this  last  rotation,  we  deduct  the  10  acres  required 
to  raise  feed  for  the  horses  and  divide  the  remaining  50  acres  by 
a  divisor  obtained  as  follows : 


284    ELEMENTARY  TREATISE;  ON  STOCK  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 
ACREAGE  FOR  ONE  Sow  AND  PIGS 

Acres 

Special  pasture  for  i  sow 0.20 

Regular  pasture  for  14  pigs 1.17 

Corn  in  rotation  with  pasture 1.17 

Total 2.54 

"For  each  sow  and  her  two  litters  of  pigs  there  is  therefore 
required  2.54  acres.  Dividing  50  by  this  we  get  19.7.  Retain- 
ing the  fraction  of  this  number  as  a  factor  of  safety,  the  area  of 
the  special  pasture  for  the  sows  is  4  acres.  The  area  of  wheat 
and  clover  pasture  is  23,  and  the  area  of  corn  23  acres. 

"If  increasing  the  area  of  pasture  and  buying  corn  to  feed  the 
hogs  on  this  pasture  is  more  profitable  than  raising  the  corn,  it 
would  also  be  more  profitable  to  buy  feed  for  the  horses.  If  this 
is  done,  to  find  the  number  of  sows  that  can  be  kept  we  divide 
60  acres  by  2.54,  the  result  being  23.6.  This  gives  the  area  of 
special  pasture  for  the  sows  as  4.72  acres,  leaving  55.28  acres  to 
divide  into  two  fields  of  27.64  acres  each  for  the  rotation. 

"Twenty-three  sows  would  produce  322  pigs  annually.  The 
amount  of  corn  and  hay  that  must  be  bought  under  this  system, 
assuming  that  the  corn  raised  yields  60  bushels  per  acre,  would 
be:  Hay  for  3  horses,  8^  tons;  corn  for  three  horses,  270 
bushels;  for  23  sows  and  322  pigs,  in  addition  to  corn  raised, 
2,138  bushels. 

"In  the  system  of  hog  farming  just  outlined  difficulty  some- 
times arises  from  the  fact  that  when  wheat  begins  to  shoot  up  in 
the  spring  it  has  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  intestinal  canal  of 
the  hog.  If  trouble  of  this  kind  is  experienced,  rye  may  be 
substituted  for  wheat.  Along  the  extreme  southern  edge  of 
the  belt  to  which  this  type  of  farming  is  adapted  winter  oats  may 
be  used,  and  these  are  better  than  either  wheat  or  rye  for  hog 
pasture." 

Cropping  System  for  Illinois  Hog  Farm. — According  to  Farm- 
ers' Bui.  272,  the  following  cropping  system  has  been  used  on 
a  hog  farm  in  Illinois  with  good  success  for  10  years : 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR    STOCK    FARMS  285 

First  year,  corn,  4/5  and  soy  bean  1/5 
Second  year,  corn 
Third  year,  oats 
Fourth  year,  clover 

Four  equal  fields  of  20  acres  each  were  used  in  this  rotation. 
The  soy  beans  were  harvested  and  used  as  hay  for  winter  feed- 
ing; the  clover  was  pastured;  the  oats  were  used  for  feed- 
ing the  hogs  and  work  horses ;  and  the  corn  stover,  sheaf  oats  or 
oat  straw  were  also  used  for  feeding.  A  little  hay  was  pur- 
chased. Besides  the  80  acres  used  in  the  rotation,  10  acres  were 
in  blue  grass,  31  acres  in  timber  and  10  acres  were  used  for  the 
orchard,  garden,  barn  lot  and  yards,  making  a  total  for  the  farm 
of  131  acres. 

Five  horses,  two  cows,  fifteen  Duroc-Jersey  brood  sows  which 
averaged  eight  pigs  to  the  litter,  and  120  yearling  hogs  were 
kept.  The  yearling  hogs  were  pastured  on  12  acres  of  the 
clover  and  grain  fed,  at  the  rate  of  2^2  to  4  Ibs.  a  day  depending 
upon  the  pasture,  during  the  summer  and  were  sent  to  market 
about  August  i-io  weighing  325-350  Ibs. 

The  sows  and  young  pigs  were  put  on  8  acres  of  clover  and 
turned  on  the  remaining  12  acres  when  the  yearling  hogs  were 
marketed.  The  sows  and  pigs  were  grain  fed  and  by  fall  the 
pigs  weighed  about  100-125  Ibs. 

In  the  winter  the  pigs  were  fed  5  Ibs.  of  the  following  mix- 
ture: 

3^  pounds  corn 
^  pound  shorts 
3^"  pound  oil  meal 

Soy  bean  hay  was  also  fed.  By  spring  these  pigs  weighed 
200-225  Ibs. 

The  sows  were  fed  clover  hay,  enough  of  which  was  cut  from 
the  pasture  for  this  purpose,  and  4  Ibs.  of  grain,  consisting  of 
ground  rye  or  bran,  oil  meal,  shorts,  and  corn. 

The  owner  of  this  hog  farm  says:  "We  think  now  we  shall 
change  our  rotation  and  have  one  division  in  alfalfa,  running  a 
rotation  of  corn,  corn,  clover  on  three  fields ;  or  we  may  use  soy 
beans  and  omit  the  clover." 


286      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE)  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Cropping  Systems  for  New  England  Dairy  Farms. — According 
to  Dodge  in  Farmers'  Bui.  337. 

"New  England  is  preeminently  a  section  of  small  farms,  due 
largely  to  the  generally  broken  character  of  the  country,  the 
farming  land  being  located  in  small  areas  scattered  among  the 
hills.  Since  the  farms  are  small,  some  type  of  intensive  farm- 
ing must  be  followed  to  make  them  profitable.  Since  the  land 
has  already  been  tilled  longer  than  good  land  will  bear  an  ex- 
ploitive  system  of  farming,  some  type  of  live-stock  farming  is 
a  necessity  on  most  farms.  As  the  most  intensive  form  of  stock 
farming  is  dairying,  this  latter  industry  is  naturally  the  leading 
one  on  New  England  farms.  Dairying,  in  the  main,  has  been  a 
profitable  business  in  New  England,  but  in  recent  years  condi- 
tions have  changed,  and  the  outlook  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  it 
has  been  at  various  times  in  the  past. 

"Some  of  the  difficulties  which  are  at  present  most  evident 
are  the  high  prices  of  concentrated  feeds  and  of  labor.  Some 
sections  of  New  England,  furthermore,  feel  the  pressure  of 
unsatisfactory  market  conditions,  especially  those  sections  which 
ship  milk  to  the  large  cities,  where  the  farmers,  are  offered  a 
price  for  their  milk  on  which  they  can  hardly  make  a  profit. 

"Outside  of  the  milk-shipping  sections  the  difficulties  men- 
tioned do  not  appear,  on  careful  observation,  to  be  the  most 
fundamental,  although  they  are  the  most  obvious.  Taking  the 
Northeastern  States  of  the  Union  as  a  whole,  owing  to  climate 
and  topography  the  land  is  in  general  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
grass  and  trees.  The  fact  that  grass  is  so  much  at  home  in  those 
States  has  led  to  a  serious  fault  in  New  England  dairy  farming, 
namely,  the  mismanagement  of  grass  lands.  This  consists  in 
the  main  of  a  lack  of  proper  treatment  for  permanent  grass  lands 
and  of  suitable  rotations  for  other  land,  as  well  as  the  use  for 
grass  growing  of  land  which  does  not  give  profitable  returns 
from  grass  and  which  should  rightfully  be  devoted  to  tree 
growth,  either  as  woodland  or  orchards.  Another  frequent  and 
wide-spread  fault  is  the  habit  of  cutting  the  hay  crop  entirely 
too  late  in  the  season,  which  of  itself  shortens  the  life  of  the 
meadow  and  results  in  an  inferior  quality  of  hay  for  dairy  feed- 
ing. 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR    STOCK    FARMS 


28; 


"Closely  associated  with  poor  management  of  grass  lands  is 
the  failure  to  utilize  other  crops  available  for  this  section,  es- 
pecially corn.  In  southern  New  England  there  is  little  difficulty 
in  growing  good  silage  corn,  but  as  one  travels  northward  there 
is  evidence  of  a  lack  of  suitable  varieties  of  corn  for  silage.  This 
difficulty  is  not  insuperable.  There  are  varieties  of  corn  that 
can  be  grown  for  silage  in  all  but  the  most  northern  counties  in 
New  England.  What  is  most  needed  is  that  sufficient  attention 
be  given  to  the  selection  of  seed  in  order  to  develop  strains  of 
corn  fitted  to  the  requirements  of  the  different  sections. 

"Some  of  the  best  dairy  farms  of  the  country  are  to  be  found 
in  New  England.  They  are  scattered  here  and  there  all  over  the 
New  England  States.  A  careful  study  has  been  made  of  the 
cropping  systems  on  a  large  number  of  these  farms."  The  re- 
sults of  this  study  are  tabulated  in  the  following  table. 

The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  live-stock  and  seed 
required  on  several  New  England  dairy  farms  i1 

TABLE  I. — ACREAGE  OF  NEW  ENGLAND  FARMS,  AND  NUMBER  OF 
LIVE-STOCK  ON  EACH 


Farm 

System 

Tilled 
land 

Pas- 
ture 

Number  of 
cattle 

Tillable! 
land  per 
animal2 

Pasture 
per 
animal 

Cows 

Young 
stock 

Jones  

Sanborn  .  . 
Noyes  
Smith  
Chittemlen 
Davis  
Holt 

Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
No  silage 
No  silage 

Grain  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Gram  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Grain  rais'd 
Grain  pur'd 
Grain  pur'd 

acres 

40 
42OO 

18 
75 
175 
28 

74 
80 

65 
16 

18 

acres 

40 
225 
150 

75 

100 

36 
40 

25 
140 
II 

55 
no 

25 
70 

45 
35 
ii 

20 

15 
100 

3 

25 
25 
15 
25 

acres 
3l.09 

1.05 

0-95 

1.  10 

6i.4o 
0.83 
0.89 
1.77 
1.56 
1.23 
0.90 

acres 

1.  00 
0.9 

(5) 
0-935 
0.7 
0.92 
0.4 

(7) 
1.28 
2.85 

Qorlrl 

Wilson  .... 
Ames  
Avery 

60 
40 

12 

3 

1  Farmers'  Bui.  337. 

-  On  most  of  these  farms  2  horses  are  kept  for  each  18  or  20  cattle.  The  horses  do  not 
use  any  pasture,  but  must  be  counted  in  connection  with  the  crops  raised.  In  reckoning 
tillable  land  or  pasture  per  animal,  2  young  cattle  or  5  sheep  are  considered  the  equivalent 
of  i  cow. 

'•>  In  reckoning  tillable  land  per  cow  only  that  used  for  raising  feed  is  counted. 

4  Figures  on  the  Sanborn  farm  refer  only  to  the  part  used  to  supply  dairy  feeds. 

5  On  the  Noyes  farm  32  sheep  are  kept  in  addition  to  the  cattle,  and  so  the  surplus 
pasture  is  partly  utilized. 

0  Considerable  hay  is  sold  annually  from  the  Chittenden  farm. 

~  There  is  no  pasture  on  the  Sadd  farm.    Cows  are  stall  fed  the  year  around. 


288      ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON    STOCK  FEEDS    AND  FEEDING 


TABLE  II. — ACREAGE  OF  THE  SEVERAL  CROPS  ON  NEW  ENGLAND 
FARMS,  AND  PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  IN  EACH  CROP 


Farm 

Tilled 
land 

Approximate  number  of 
acres1  in  — 

Tillable  land 

Corn 

Other 
cereals5 

Grass 
and 
clover 

In  corn 

In  other 
cereals^ 

In  grass 
and  clo- 
ver hay 

acres 

40 
200 

18 
75 
175 

28 

74 
80 

65 
16 
18 

12 
5° 
4-5 
22 

58 

6 
25 
30 
16 

62 

10 
100 

4-5 
22 

17 
2 

20 

5i6 
4 

14 
4i5o 
9 
3i 

IOO 

20 
29 
50 
32 
ii 
16 

per  cent. 

30- 
25. 
25- 
30- 
32. 
21-5 
34- 
37-5 
25- 

n. 

per  cent. 

25- 
50. 
25- 
30. 
10. 

7.5 
25. 

25. 
25. 

percent. 

335- 
25- 
50- 
40. 

58. 
71- 
31- 
62.5 
,50. 
37o. 
89. 

Smith 

Otiittenrleii 

HoH 

Sarlrl 

Wilson 

Ames  

A  Very    

TABLE  III.— QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  AND  DATES  OF  PLANTING 
AND  HARVESTING  FOR  THE  LATITUDE  OF  CONCORD,  N.  H.7 


Crop 

Quantity  of 
seed  per  acre 

Date  of  planting 

Date  when  fit 
for  soiling 

Date  when 
fit  for  silage 
or  hay 

Corn  

12  quarts  • 
{i  bushel  .  . 
i  bushel  •  . 
\y2  bush.. 
3  bushels  . 
3  bushels  • 
/  2  bushels  • 
\  ^  bushel  . 
30  pounds. 
30  pounds  . 

12  pounds. 

May  18-25  •  •  • 
!  April  25 
to 
May  10  

August  10  .  . 
Tulv  ^  .  • 

Sept.  10 
July  25 

Sept.  20. 
June  10 

July  1-5 

Aug.  1-30 
Aug.  1-30 

June  25-30 

Oats  1 

Peas  >-  mixed 
Barley  ) 

September  i 
May  20  

June  10  

July  5-30  .  .  . 
July  20  to 
August  20 

jjune  15... 

Barley  

Tulv  T 

J  U1j  A  •  • 
Sept.  1-20  

jSept.  1-20...  . 

June  1-30  
June  1-30  

|  April  10-30  .  . 
j  August  1-25. 

Winter  wheat!       .      , 
Winter  vetch)  mixed 

Hungarian  millet  
Clover. 

1  These  figures  are  only  approximate,  for  the  acreages  vary  slightly  from  year  to  year. 
-  Includes  either  Japanese  or  Hungarian  millet  on  a  few  farms. 

3  On  the  Jones  and  the  Ames  farms,   respectively,  a  small  area  out  of  the  tilled  land  is 
used  for  potatoes. 

4  Includes  50  acres  of  permanent  pasture. 

5  On  all  except  the  Wilson  farm  other  cereal  crops  than  corn  are  used  for  hay  or  silage. 
On  the  Wilson  farm  they  are  cut  for  grain. 

6  All  corn  raised  is  for  silage  except  on  the  Avery  farm,  where  corn  is  raised  for  grain, 
and  figures  there  apply  only  to  winter  feeding. 

7  The  dates  given  are  for  a  normal   season.      For  points  to  the  north  or  south  of 
Concord  or  in  higher  altitudes  some  allowance  needs  to  be  made,  but  the  differences  will 
be  rather  slight. 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR    STOCK    FARMS 


289 


"The  essentials  of  the  New  England  dairyman,  according  to 
Farmers'  Bui.  337,  in  growing  feed  for  his  cows  appear  to 
be  the  use  of  a  short  rotation  wherever  possible;  all  the  clover 


Fig.  24.— Sorghum;  a  succulent  feed. 


hay  and  corn  silage  that  can  be  grown ;  liming  the  land  for  clover 
if  need  be;  better  management,  especially  in  the  use  of  manure, 
of  land  which  is  not  fit  for  short  rotations ;  and  the  utilizing  of 
the  various  other  crops  that  have  been  mentioned  to  fill  the  gaps 


290      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON    STOCK   FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

with  succulent  feed  or  add  in  quantity  and  quality  to  the  ordi- 
nary hay  crop." 

Cropping  System  for  Dairy  Farm  in  Michigan. — Farmers'  Bui. 
280,  gives  a  description  of  a  dairy  farm  in  Michigan  run  on 
the  tenant  basis  which  has  been  successful.  This  farm  is  of  120 
acres,  and  60  cows,  43  calves  and  yearlings,  2  bulls  and  9  horses 
were  on  the  place  at  the  time  of  these  observations.  All  the 
roughage  was  grown  on  the  farm,  and  the  oil  meal,  bran  and 
cotton-seed  meal  were  purchased. 


SYSTEM  OF  CROPPING  FOR  1905,  1906  AND  I9071 


Field 
number 

Acreage 

Crop,  1905 

Crop,  1906 

Crop,  1907 

17 

24 

32 

13 
10 

10 

Corn 
Rye,  to  be  cut  for 
hay  and  followed 
by  corn 
13  acres  corn 
1 
}•  19  acres  alfalfa 
J 
Alfalfa 

Rye,  to  be  cut  for 
hay  and  seeded  to 
alfalfa 
Alfalfa 

Corn,  sowed  to  rye 

f  13  acres  corn  •  •  . 
j  18  ac  res   oats, 
seeded  to  alfalfa 
!  i  acre  rye,  seeded 
I     to  alfalfa  •  • 

3  

Oats,  cut  for  hay; 
seeded  to  alfalfa. 
Oats,  cut  for  grain  ; 
seeded  to  rye  •  •  • 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  . 



Rye,    followed  by 
corn,    seeded    to 

..... 

f. 

iyc-  • 

Alfalfa 

In  addition  there  was  a  pasture  of  2^  acres,  which  was  never 
plowed. 

Enough  manure  was  produced  on  this  farm  to  cover  the  whole 
form  with  6-8  tons  per  acre.  No  commercial  fertilizer  was 
used. 

The  corn  for  silage  was  a  large  ensilage  corn  planted  on  well 
manured  land.  The  corn  stubble  was  seeded  with  rye  which 
proved  to  be  very  successful  as  a  hay  crop.  From  10  acres,  4 
big  loads  of  rye  hay  and  15  tons  of  silage  to  the  acre  were  har- 
vested for  1906. 

1  Farmers'  Bui.  280. 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS   FOR    STOCK    FARMS  29 1 

Cropping  Systems  with  Alfalfa. — Wing1  suggests  the  following 
rotations  using  alfalfa  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois : 


First  year,  corn 

Second  year,  corn 

Third  year,  alfalfa  and  barley 

Fourth  year,  alfalfa 

Fifth  year,  alfalfa 

Sixth  year,  alfalfa 


The  alfalfa  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  on  barley  stubble  or  in 
the  spring  with  barley  as  a  nurse  crop.  Permanent  pasture  is 
kept  for  cows,  work  horses,  and  pigs. 

A  shorter  rotation  is  suggested  by  the  same  authority  as  fol- 
lows : 

First  year,  corn 
Second  year,  wheat 
Third  year,  alfalfa 
Fourth  year,  alfalfa 

The  alfalfa  may  be  sown  on  the  plowed  wheat  stubble.  Per- 
manent pasture  is  provided  for  live-stock. 

Cropping  Systems  for  North  Central  States. — The  following 
cropping  system  is  popular  in  these  states : 

First  year,  corn 

Second  year,  oats 

Third  year,  clover  and  timothy 

Fourth  year,  clover  and  timothy 

It  is  possible  to  plant  Irish  potatoes  or  oats  after  the  corn. 
Rye  may  be  planted  in  the  fall  after  the  corn,  oats  or  potatoes 
and  this  crop  will  be  off  by  July  ist.  The  clover  may  be  sowed 
at  the  last  snowfall  or  early  in  the  spring,  and  a  crop  of  hay 
should  be  secured  from  this  by  early  fall.  The  mammoth  red 
clover  is  popular. 

Cropping  Systems  for  the  Gulf  States. — In  the  Gulf  states  it  is 
possible  to  raise  many  crops  during  the  summer  and  winter,  and 
so  the  stock  farmer  is  not  always  limited  in  his  choice  of  crops. 
The  following  are  a  few  crops  that  are  successful  for  this  region : 

1  Alfalfa  in  America. 


292      ELEMENTARY   TREATISE  ON   STOCK  FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 

Summer  Winter 

Corn  and  cowpeas  Beets,  turnips  or  carrots 

Sorghum  Oats 

Sweet  potatoes  Red  or  crimson  clover 

Lespedeza  (Japan  clover)  Italian  rye  grass 

Peanuts  Bur  clover 

Alfalfa  Irish  potatoes 
Bermuda 

In  some  sections  of  the  Gulf  States  it  is  too  cold  in  the  winter 
for  mangels,  and  carrots  or  turnips  may  be  substituted,  but  man- 
gels are  preferred. 

Alluvial  lands  well  seeded  in  alfalfa  may  remain  until  the 
crop  is  unprofitable.  On  certain  lands  this  crop  may  last  for 
years.  Lespedeza  and  Bermuda  are  excellent  for  pasture  or  for 
hay  and  will  usually  reseed  themselves.  Besides  these,  there 
are  innumerable  grasses,  legumes  and  other  forage  crops  that 
may  be  successfully  grown.. 

Suggestion: — Figure  cropping  systems  for  stock  farms  in 
your  locality.  The  yearly  requirements  for  live-stock  may  be 
easily  ascertained  by  computing  rations  from  the  feeds  you  can 
raise.  It  may  be  necessary  to  purchase  small  amounts  of  protein 
concentrates  for  some  classes  of  live-stock,  but  most  and  some- 
times all  of  the  feed  may  be  raised  at  home. 


THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 


Alabama — 

College   Station;   Auburn. 

Canebrake  Station;  Uniontown. 

Tuskegee,    Tuskegee. 
Arizona — Tucson. 
Arkansas — Fayetteville. 
California — Berkeley. 
Colorado — Fort  Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State   Station,   New   Haven. 

Storrs   Station,  Storrs. 
Delaware — Newark. 
Florida — Gainesville. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Idaho. — Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
Indiana — Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — 

State  Station,  Baton  Rouge. 

Sugar  Station,  Audubon   Park, 
N.  O. 

North  La.  Station,  Calhoun. 

Rice  Station,  Crowley. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland— College  Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East  Lansing. 
Minnesota — St.  Anthony  Park, 

St.  Paul. 
Mississippi — Agricultural    College. 


Missouri — 

College  Station;  Columbia. 
Fruit  Station;  Mountain  Grove. 

Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New    Hampshire — Durham. 

New  Jersey — New  Brunswick. 

New  Mexico — Agricultural  College. 

New   York- 
State   Station ;   Geneva. 
Cornell   Station ;   Ithaca. 

North  Carolina — 

College  Station;  West  Raleigh. 
State  Station,  Raleigh. 

North  Dakota — Agricultural  College. 

Ohio— Wooster. 

Oklahoma— Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State   College. 

Rhode  Island — Kingston. 

South  Carolina — Clemson  College. 

South    Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville. 

Texas — College  Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington. 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West  Virginia — Morgantown. 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

Wyoming — Laramie. 


INDEX. 


Absorption,  43. 

Adulterants  in  feeds,  in;  composi- 
tion of,  112. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations, 
293- 

Albuminoids,  22,  24. 

Alfalfa,  for  calves,  247;  for  dairy 
cows,  194;  for  ewes,  251;  for 
fattening  cattle,  211;  for  horses, 
218;  for  poultry,  259;  for  sheep, 
226;  for  swine,  242;  cropping 
systems  with,  291 ;  meal,  103 ; 
pasture  for  sheep,  226;  pasture 
for  swine,  244. 

Amides,  22. 

Amylopsin,  37,  43. 

Animals,  action  of  plant  on,  2;  ash 
in,  18,  32;  carbohydrates  in,  27; 
composition  of,  section  on,  31 ; 
composition  of  ash  of,  20;  com- 
position of  dry  matter  of,  7,  31 ; 
distribution  of  mineral  elements 
in,  8;  fats  in,  34;  food  of,  I ;  pro- 
tein in,  34 ;  statistics  on,  IV ; 
water  in,  12,  32. 

Apples  for  poultry,  259. 

Ash,  acids  and  bases  of,  13 ;  defini- 
tion and  composition  of,  13 ;  dis- 
tribution of  in  plants,  15;  ex- 
amples of  13;  functions  of,  56; 
in  animals,  18;  in  plants,  13; 
salts  of,  13;  variation  of  in  plant 
substances,  14. 

Assimilation,  44;    definition    of,   36. 

Barley,  98;  for  dairy  cows,  190;  for 
fattening  cattle,  212;  for  horses, 
216;  for  lambs,  229;  for  poultry, 
257;  for  swine,  238;  pasture  for 
swine,  244. 


Bedding  for  fattening  cattle,  213 ;  for 

horses,  219;  for  sheep,  227;  for 

swine,  244. 
Beet  pulp,  86;   for  dairy  cows,  192; 

for     fattening    cattle,    210;    for 

sheep,  231. 

Beets  for  dairy  cows,  210. 
Bermuda  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193. 
Bile,  37- 

Blood,  arterial  and  venous,  45 ;  com- 
position of,  46;  functions  of,  45; 

physical  characters  of,  45;  pure 

and  impure,  47;  salts  of,  45. 
Bolus,  39. 
Bone,  composition  of,  91 ;   fresh  cut 

and  dry  cracked  for  poultry,  258, 

259;  meal,  88. 
Brewers'    grains,    79,    80;    for    dairy 

cows,   191;   for  horses,  217;   for 

poultry,  267. 
Buckwheat     by-products     for     dairy 

cows,  190 ;  for  poultry,  257. 
Buttermilk,  88;  for  swine,  241. 
By-products,    alcoholic,    79;     animal 

and  fish,  87;  breakfast  food,  80; 

glucose  and  starch,  82;  milk,  88; 

milling,   83;    packing  house,   88; 

sugar,  85 ;  value  of,  74 ;  vegetable 

oil,  74. 

Cabbage  for  poultry,  259. 
Calf,  care  of,  249;   feeding  of  beef, 

246;  feeding  of  dairy,  248;  feed 

after  weaning,  247;  weaning,  248. 
Calcium,  4,  18. 
Calorie,  definition  of,  61. 
Calorimeter,  63. 
Canada   blue  grass    for   dairy   cows, 

193- 
Canada  field  pea  for  dairy  cows,  194 ; 

for  swine,  239. 


296 


INDEX 


Carbohydrates,  definition  of,  26;  ex- 
amples of,  26;  functions  of,  57; 
in  animals,  27. 

Carbon,   3. 

Carbonic    acid,   3,   36. 

Carrots  for  dairy  cows,  201. 

Cellulose,  28. 

Charcoal  for  poultry,  260. 

Chicks,  rations  for,  263. 

Chlorine,  5. 

Chyle,  42. 

Chylification,  42. 

Chyme,  39. 

Chymification,  39. 

Circulation,   43. 

Clover  for  calves,  249;  for  dairy 
cows,  194;  for  ewes,  251;  for 
fattening  cattle,  211;  for  horses, 
217;  for  poultry,  259;  for  sheep, 
230;  for  swine,  242;  meal,  103. 

Clover  pasture  for  sheep,  226;  for 
swine,  244. 

Cold  pressed  cake,  77,  78. 

Colt,  feeding  of,  249;  food  after 
weaning,  250;  grain  for,  250. 

Commercial  feeds,  section  on,  74,  83 ; 
classes  of,  section  on,  90,  98; 
definition  of,  74 ;  standards  for, 
91 ;  sources  of,  74. 

Composition,  necessity  of,  124. 

Concentrates,  amounts  to  feed,  147. 

Condimental  feeds  and  condition 
powders,  118. 

Conversion  factors,  118. 

Corn  for  dairy  cows,  189 ;  for  ewes, 
251  ;  for  fattening  cattle,  207 ;  for 
horses,  216;  for  lambs,  229;  for 
poultry,  256;  for  swine,  236. 

Corn  and  cob  meal  for  dairy  cows, 
189;  for  fattening  cattle,  209; 
for  horses,  216. 

Corn  and  cob  meal  for  dairy  cows, 
189;  for  fattening  cattle,  209; 
for  horses,  216. 

Corn  and  oat  feeds,  80,  81,  91. 


Corn  bran,  81 ;   for  dairy  cows,   189. 

Corn  chops,  98. 

Corn  fodder  for  dairy  cows,  193 ;  for 

horses,  218. 
Corn  germ  meal,  82;  for  dairy  cows, 

189. 
Corn,    husked    for    fattening    cattle, 

209. 

Corn  leaves  for  sheep,  230. 
Corn  meal  for  calves,  248;  for  colts, 

250;    for    dairy    cows,    189;    for 

ewes,    251  ;    for    fattening   cattle, 

209;  for  pigs,  253 ;  for  swine,  236. 
Corn,   shelled  for  calves,  247. 
Corn,    snapped    for    fattening   cattle, 

208. 
Corn  stover  for  calves,  249 ;  for  colts, 

250 ;  for  fattening  cattle,  209 ;  for 

horses,  218. 
Corpuscles,  45. 
Cotton  products,  composition  of,  77; 

impotance  of,  75. 
Cotton-seed,  for  dairy  cows,  191 ;  for 

fattening    cattle,    210;    yield    of 

products   from,    76. 
Cotton-seed   feed,  93. 
Cotton-seed    hulls,    75,    76,    77;    for 

dairy  cows,  191;  for  horses,  219; 

for  sheep,  230. 
Cotton-seed    meal,    76,    77 ;    chemical 

classification  of,  92;  commercial 

classification  of,  92;  composition 

of,  77,  93 ;  for  dairy  cows,  191 ; 

for    fattening    cattle,    208,    210: 

for  horses,  216;  for  poultry,  258; 

for  sheep,  230;  for  swine,  239. 
Cowpea    for    calves,   247;    for   dairy 

cows,  194;  for  sheep,  230. 
Cowpea  pasture  for  cattle,  211;   for 

swine,   244. 

Crab  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193. 
Cropping    systems    for    stock    farms, 

section  on,  278;  how  to  plan,  281. 


INDEX 


297 


Dairy  cows,  feed  and  care  of,  sec- 
tion on,  188;  influence  of  age  on, 

54-. 

Dairy  farm,  cropping  systems  for, 
286,  290. 

Defecation,  44. 

Deglutition,  39. 

Digestibility,  coefficients  of,  122 ;  con- 
ditions governing,  section  on,  51 ; 
of  feeds,  121 ;  necessity  of,  124. 

Digestion,  definition  of,  36;  physiol- 
ogy of,  section  on,  36 ;  intestinal, 
42. 

Distillers'  grains,  80;  for  dairy  cows, 
191. 

Dried  blood,  88;  for  swine,  241. 

Drinking,  38. 

Dry  ground  fish,  89. 

Dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients 
in  feed-stuffs,  section  on,  157; 
in  animals,  31 ;  in  plants,  9. 

Emmer,  230. 

Energy,  measurement  of,  61 ;  poten- 
tial and  kinetic,  61 ;  sources  and 
uses  of,  60 ;  uses  of  compounds 
that  furnish,  60;  utilization  of, 
62. 

Energy  values,  computation  of  ra- 
tions according  to,  section  on, 
179. 

Exercise  for  colts,  250;  for  dairy 
cows,  203 ;  for  pigs,  254 ;  for 
poultry,  260;  for  swine,  244. 

Farm  crops,  value  of,  269. 

Farm  manure,  amounts  voided  by 
farm  animals,  270 ;  composition 
of,  270;  effects  of,  269;  lasting 
qualities  of,  269 ;  value  of,  269, 
271. 

Fats,  absorption  of,  43 ;  definition 
of,  28;  examples  of,  56;  func- 
tions of,  57;  in  animals,  29;  in 
plant  substances,  29. 

Fattening,  nature  of  gain  in,  34. 


Fattening  cattle,  feed  and  care  of, 
section  on,  207;  for  fall  market, 
213. 

Feed  meal,  82. 

Feed    mixtures,    101. 

Feed  requirements,  181. 

Feeds,  adulteration  of,  in;  classes 
of,  91,  117;  composition  of,  121; 
digestibility  of,  121 ;  for  dairy 
cows,  188;  how  to  buy,  116;  low 
grade,  no;  production  of  in  the 
United  States,  71 ;  table  of  com- 
position and  digestibility,  125. 

Feed-stuff  laws,  105;  Federal  law, 
no;  importance  of,  105;  require- 
ments of,  105;  uniform  law,  106; 
and  feed  adulterants,  section  on, 
105. 

Feed-stuffs,  as  a  source  of  energy, 
section  on,  60;  a  few  remarks 
about,  section  on,  113;  compo- 
sition and  digestibility  of,  sec- 
tion on,  121 ;  tentative  definitions 
of,  107;  valuation  of,  113;  weight 
and  measure  of,  151. 

Feeding  standards,  section  on,  136; 
guides,  150;  table  of,  138. 

Ferments,  36,  37. 

Fertilizer  constituents   in   feeds,  274. 

Fiber,  definition  of,  27;  in  plant  sub- 
stances, 28. 

Fish  refuse,  89. 

Flax  feed  and  bran,  78. 

Flaxseed   for  poultry,   257. 

Flaxseed  meal  for  calves,  248. 

Fluorine,  5. 

Food,  chemical  composition  of,  51 ; 
circulation  of  digested,  45;  pala- 
tability  of,  51 ;  quantity  of,  51. 

Forage  crops,  65;  curing  of,  194; 
husbanding  of,  66;  losses  in  field 
curing  of,  67;  time  to  harvest, 
68. 

Gastric  juice,  37. 

Gelatinoids,   22,  24. 


298 


INDEX 


Gluten,   22. 

Gluten  feed  and  meal,  82;  for  calves, 
247;  for  dairy  cows,  189;  for 
ewes,  251 ;  for  fattening  cattle, 
208;  for  poultry,  258;  for  sheep, 
230. 

Glycogen,  43. 

Glycocholic   acid,   37. 

Grain  on  grass  for  fattening  cattle, 
212. 

Grains,  66. 

Grasses,  66;  for  poultry,  259;  hays 
of  for  calves,  249;  for  dairy 
cows,  193 ;  for  ewes,  251 ;  for 
fattening  cattle,  211 ;  for  horses, 
218;  for  sheep,  231. 

Grit  for  poultry,  260. 

Haemoglobin,  45. 

Heart,  47;  compartments  of,  47. 

Heats  of  combustion,  62. 

Hog  farm,  cropping  systems  for, 
284. 

Hominy  meal,  82;  for  dairy  cows, 
189. 

Horses,  feed  and  care  of,  section 
on,  215;  rations  for,  223;  require- 
ments for,  215 ;  system  in  feed- 
ing, 220;  wintering  working,  220. 

Hydrochloric  acid,  37. 

Hydrogen,  2. 

Hygroscopic  water,  9. 

Insalivation,  38. 

Intestinal   digestion,  42. 

Intestinal  juice,  37. 

Intestines,  length  of,  40. 

Irish   potatoes   for  dairy  cows,  201. 

Iron,   5. 

Italian  rye  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193. 

Japan  clover,  see  lespedeza. 

Kafir  corn  for  fattening  cattle,  211; 
for  horses,  216;  for  poultry,  257; 
for  swine,  238. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  for  dairy  cows, 

193- 
Kidneys,   48. 


Kindness,  203. 

Lambs,  fattening  winter,  227;  feed- 
ing of,  250;  grain  for,  251;  hot- 
house, 228. 

Legumes  for  dairy  cows,  194;  for 
fattening  cattle,  211;  for  horses, 
218;  for  silage,  195;  methods  of 
curing,  194. 

Legumin,  22. 

Leguminous   plants,   65. 

Lespedeza  for  dairy  cows,  194. 

Lettuce  for  poultry,  259. 

Lime,  for  poultry,  260 ;  ratio  to  phos- 
phoric acid  in  feeds,  19. 

Linseed  meal,  78,  79;  for  calves, 
247 ;  for  dairy  cows,  191 ;  for 
ewes,  251 ;  for  fattening  cattle, 
210;  for  horses,  217;  for  poul- 
try, 258;  for  sheep,  230;  for 
swine,  239. 

Liver,  49. 

Live-stock,  better  labor,  273;  grow- 
ing of  legumes  for,  272;  im- 
portance of  raising,  269 ;  market 
for  cheap  and  coarse  feed-stuffs, 
272 ;  mixed  husbandry  profitable, 
273 ;  reducing  freight  charges  by 
keeping,  271 ;  roots  and  tubers 
for,  273. 

Magnesium,  5. 

Malnutrition,   18. 

Mash   for  poultry,  260. 

Malt  sprouts,  80;  for  dairy  cows, 
191. 

Maltose,  38. 

Manganese,   5. 

Mangels    for    dairy    cows,    201  ;    for 

fattening    cattle,    210. 
Mastication,    38. 
Meadow  fescue  grass  for  dairy  cows, 

193- 
Meat  and  bone-meal,  88;  for  "poultry, 

259- 
Meat   scrap,   88 ;    for    poultry,   258. 


INDEX 


299 


Milch    cows,    standards    for,    section 

on,   173. 

Milk,    by-products    of,    88;    composi- 
tion   of,   20,   87,   88;    for   calves, 

248;  for  colts,  249. 
Millet  hay   for  dairy  cows,    193;    for 

horses,    218. 
Millet     seed    for    poultry,    257;     for 

swine,  238. 
Molasses,    beet,    cane    and    sorghum, 

85,  86,  87;   for  dairy  cows,   192; 

for     fattening    cattle,     211 ;     for 

horses,    217;    for    swine,    241. 
Molasses   feeds,  99;   classes  of,   100. 
Nitrogen,  3. 
Nitrogen  free  compounds,  section  on, 

26. 

Nitrogen   free  extract,  26,  27. 
Nutrients,   table  of  digestible,    125. 
Nutrients    and    their    functions,    sec- 
tion  on,   56;   comparison  of,   59; 

how    they    enter    the    blood,    47; 

summary  of  functions  of,  58. 
Nutritive    ratio,    definition    of,    124; 

terms  of,  144. 

Oat   feeds,   80,  81 ;   fortified,  99. 
Oat  hay  for  horses,  218. 
Oats  for  calves,  247;   for  colts,  250; 

for   dairy   cows,    191 ;    for    ewes, 

251;    for    fattening    cattle,    211; 

for  horses,  215;  for  lambs,  229; 

for   pigs,   253;    for  poultry,   257; 

for  sheep,  229;  for  swine,  239. 
Oats  and  barley  mixed,  98. 
Oats  and  peas,  and  vetch,   and  peas 

and  vetch  for  dairy  cows,  193. 
Onions  for  poultry,  259. 
Orchard  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193. 
Organic  acids,  26. 
Organic  matter,  definition  of,  n. 
Oxy-haemoglobin,  45. 
Oxygen,  3. 

Oyster   shells    for  poultry,   260. 
Palatability,  260. 
Pancreatic  juice,  42. 


Pasture  for  dairy  cows,  202 ;  for 
fattening  cattle,  212;  for  poul- 
try, 259;  for  sheep,  226;  for 
swine,  244. 

Pea  meal  for  dairy  cows,  191. 

Peanut   vine    for    dairy  cows,    194. 

Peanuts  for  swine,  242. 

Peas  for  ewes,  251;  for  pigs,  253; 
for  poultry,  257. 

Pepsin,   39. 

Peptones,   37,   39;   absorption   of,  43. 

Phosphoric  acid,  ratio  to  lime  in 
plants,  19. 

Phosphorus,  4,  18. 

Physiological  water,  9. 

Pig,  feed  for,  253. 

Plants,  ash  of  young  and  mature, 
17;  chemical  elements  needed  by, 
2;  composition  of,  6,  n;  distri- 
bution of  ash  in,  15;  distribu- 
tion of  mineral  elements  in,  7, 
15;  dry  matter  of,  n;  food  of, 
i ;  variation  of  water  in,  9,  10 ; 
water  and  dry  matter  in,  9,  10. 

Plasma,  45. 

Potassium,  4. 

Poultry,  feed  and  care  of,  section 
on,  255;  standards  and  rations 
for,  section  on,  261. 

Poultry  feeds,  102;  classes  of,  103. 

Prairie  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193 ; 
for  fattening  cattle,  211. 

Prehension,   37. 

Proprietary  feeds,    101. 

Proteids,  22,  43. 

Protein  in  plants  and  animals,  sec- 
tion on,  22 ;  compounds  of,  22 ; 
examples  of,  57 ;  functions  of,  57. 

Protein  concentrates  for  fattening 
cattle,  208,  210;  for  sheep,  230. 

Provender,  99. 

Ptyalin,  37,  38. 

Rape  and  corn  for  sheep,  226. 

Rape  pasture  for  sheep,  226;  for 
swine,  244. 


300 


INDKX 


Rations,  computing  by  energy  re- 
quirements, 179;  for  animals 
weighing  more  or  less  than  1,000 
Ibs.,  144;  for  dairy  cows,  203;  for 
ewes,  251 ;  for  fattening  cattle, 
186,  213;  for  horses,  185,  223;  for 
poultry,  263;  for  sheep,  232;  for 
swine,  245;  how  to  balance,  142, 
184;  how  to  improve  and  reduce 
the  cost  of,  section  on,  152;  lay- 
ing, 266 ;  narrow,  wide  and  med- 
ium, 145,  146. 

Rebates  on  feeds,  113. 

Red  dog  flour,  83;  for  dairy  cows, 
190. 

Red  top  hay  for  dairy  cows,  193. 

Rennin,  37. 

Requirements,  fattening,  141,  207; 
for  dairy  cows,  188;  for  horses, 
215;  for  milch  cows,  175;  for 
poultry,  255 ;  for  sheep,  225 ;  for 
swine,  235;  for  young  animals, 
246;  growth,  139;  maintenance, 
137;  milk  production,  140,  175; 
work,  140. 

Rescue  grass  for  dairy  cows,   193. 

Respiration,  47. 

Respiration  apparatus  or  calorimeter, 

63. 

Rice  for  poultry,  257. 
Rice  bran,  84,  85,  94- 
Rice  by-products,  84,  85. 
Rice  grits,  84,  85. 
Rice  hulls,  84,  85. 
Rice  meal,  84;  for  dairy  cows,   190; 

for  swine,   240. 
Rice   polish,   84,   85,    94;    for    swine, 

240. 
Roots    and    tubers,    70;    composition 

of,  71;  for  dairy  cows,  201;  for 

ewes,  251 ;  for  fattening  cattle, 
for  horses,  219;  for  mares, 
for  poultry,  259;  for  sheep, 


210 
249 
231 


for  swine,  242. 


Rotation    defined,    278 ;    simple    and 

complex,  279. 

Roughage,  amount  to  feed,  147. 
Rumination,  41. 
Russian  broom  grass  for  dairy  cows, 

193- 

Rutabagas  for  dairy  cows,  201. 

Rye  for  poultry,  257;  pasture  for 
swine,  244. 

Rye  meal  for  dairy  cows,  190 ;  for 
swine,  238. 

Saliva,  37,  38. 

Salt,  absorption  of,  43 ;  for  dairy 
cows,  202 ;  for  fattening  cattle, 
213;  for  horses,  220;  for  poultry, 
260;  for  sheep,  227. 

Sheep,  feed  and  care  of,  section  on, 
225;  as  weed  destroyers,  225; 
feeding  period  rate  or  gain,  231  ; 
feeding  racks  for,  227;  pasture 
for,  226;  rations  for,  232;  re- 
quirements for,  225;  winter  fat- 
tening quarters  for,  227. 

Shelter  for  dairy  cows,  202;  for  fat- 
tening cattle,  213. 

Shocked  corn  for  fattening  cattle, 
208;  for  sheep,  228. 

Silage,  68;  composition  of,  69;  di- 
gestibility of,  70 ;  for  dairy  cows, 
195;  for  ewes,  251;  for  fatten- 
ing cattle,  209;  for  horses,  218; 
for  mares,  249 ;  for  poultry,  259  ; 
for  sheep,  230;  for  swine,  243; 
losses  in,  69;  weight  of,  196. 

Silicon,  5. 

Silo,  68;  capacity  of,  198;  horizontal 
feeding  area  of,  199;  size  of,  for 
herds,  200. 

Skim  milk,  88;  for  calves,  248;  for 
pigs,  253;  for  poultry,  259;  for 
swine,  241. 

Skin,  function  of,  49. 

Snapped  corn  for  fattening  cattle, 
208. 

Sodium,   5. 


INDEX 


301 


Soiling,   202. 

Sorghum  hay  for  fattening  cattle, 
211. 

Soy  bean  for  dairy  cows,  194;  for 
fattening  cattle,  211. 

Soy  bean  meal  for  swine,  238. 

Speltz,   230. 

Steapsin,   37,  43. 

Stock  farms,  cropping  systems  for, 
section  on,  278. 

Stock  feeds,  natural,  section  on,  65. 

Stomachal  digestion,   39. 

Stomachs,  capacities  of,  40;  descrip- 
tion of,  41. 

Stover,  70;  composition  of,  70;  for 
calves,  249;  for  colts,  250;  for 
ewes,  251 ;  for  fattening  cattle, 
211. 

Straw,  70;  composition  of,  70;  for 
colts,  250;  for  dairy  cows,  194; 
for  ewes,  251  ;  for  fattening  cat- 
tle, 210;  for  horses,  219;  for 
sheep,  231. 

Sugar,  26;   absorption  of,  43. 

Sugar  by-products,  85. 

Sulphur,    5. 

Sunflower  seeds   for  poultry,  257. 

Sweat,  composition  of,  50;  kinds  of, 
49- 

Sweet  potatoes  for  dairy  cows,  201. 

Swine,  feed  and  care  of,  section  on, 
235 ;  cleanliness,  244 ;  exercise 
for,  244 ;  following  cattle,  243 ; 
rations  for,  245 ;  requirements 
for,  235 ;  wet  and  dry  meal  for, 
244. 

Tables,  of  composition  and  digesti- 
bility, 125 ;  of  composition  of 
fowls  and  eggs,  256;  of  capaci- 
ties of  silos,  198;  of  classes  of 
commercial  feeds,  91,  117;  of 
conversion  factors,  118;  of  dry 
matter  and  digestible  nutrients, 
158;  of  energy  values,  179;  of 
feed  requirements,  181 ;  of  feed- 


ing standards,  138;  of  fertilizer 
constituents  in  feed-stuffs,  274; 
of  gain  in  young  pigs,  253;  of 
.  gain  of  swine,  236;  of  length 
of  intestines  and  capacities  of 
stomachs,  40;  of  size  of  silos 
for  herds,  200 ;  of  standards  for 
poultry,  262;  of  weight  and  meas- 
ure of  feed-stuffs,  151 ;  of  weight 
of  silage,  197. 

Tall  oat  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193. 

Tankage,  88;  for  swine,  241. 

Taurocholic  acid,  37. 

Teosinte  for  dairy  cows,  193. 

Texas  blue  grass  for  dairy  cows, 
193- 

Therm,  definition  of,  61. 

Timothy  for  dairy  cows,  193;  for 
fattening  cattl-e,  211;  for  horses, 
217. 

Trypsin,   37,  43. 

Turnips    for   dairy  cows,   201. 

Unit  values  for  dairy  cows,  201. 

Unit  values  of  feeds,  113. 

Urine,  composition  of,  48. 

Valuation   of   feed-stuffs,   113. 

Vegetable  gums,  26. 

Velvet  grass  for  dairy  cows,  193. 

Water,  amounts  used  by  plants,  9 ; 
for  dairy  cows,  202;  for  fatten- 
ing cattle,  213;  for  horses,  219; 
for  sheep,  227 ;  for  swine,  244 ; 
kinds  of  in  plants,  9;  time  to, 
55- 

Western  rye  grass  for  dairy  cows, 
193- 

Wheat  for  dairy  cows,  190;  for  fat- 
tening cattle,  2ii ;  for  horses,  216; 
for  lambs,  229 ;  for  poultry,  257 ; 
for  swine,  237. 

Wheat  admixture,  96,  97. 

Wheat  and  vetch  for  dairy  cows, 
193- 


302 


INDEX 


Wheat  bran,  83,  96;  for  calves,  247; 
for  dairy  cows,  190;  for  ewes, 
251;  for  fattening  cattle,  210;  for 
horses,  217;  for  poultry,  258;  for 
sheep,  229;  for  swine,  237. 

Wheat  by-products,  83 ;   analyses  of, 

83- 

Wheat   flour,   83. 
Wheat    middlings    or    shorts,    83,    96, 

237- 
Wheat  mixed   feed,  83,  96. 


Wheat    screenings,    83 ;    for    poultry, 
258;    for   sheep,   229;    for   swine, 

237- 
Wheat    shorts    for    calves,    248 ;    for 

ewes,    251;     for    pigs,    253;    for 

poultry,    258. 

Wheat   pasture   for   swine,  244. 
Whey,  88;. for  swine,  241. 
Young    animals,    feed    and    care    of, 

section  on,  246 ;  requirements  of, 

246. 


Scientific  Books 

Published  by 

THE  CHEMICAL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

EASTON,  PA. 

BENEDICT— Elementary  Organic  Analysis.     Small  8vo.    Pages  VI  -f-  82. 

15   Illustrations    $i  .00 

BERGEY— Handbook  of  Practical  Hygiene.    Small  8vo.    Pages  164.. $1.50 
BILTZ — The    Practical    Methods    of    Determining    Molecular    Weights. 
(Translated  by  Jones).     Small  8vo.     Pages  VIII  -f  245.     44  Illus- 
trations     $2.00 

BOLTON— History  of  the  Thermometer.  I2mo.  Pages  96.  6  Illus- 
trations   $1.00 

CAMERON— The  Soil  Solution,  or  the  Nutrient  Medium  for  Plant  Growth. 
8vo.  Pages  VI  +  136 $1.25 

COLBY — Reinforced  Concrete  in  Europe.     8vo.     Pages  X  -f-  260 $3.50 

EMERY— Elementary  Chemistry.  I2mo.  Pages  XIV  +  666.  191  Il- 
lustrations    $1.50 

ENGELHARDT— The  Electrolysis  of  Water.  8vo.  Pages  X  -f-  140.  90 
Illustrations  $1.25 

OILMAN — A  Laboratory  Outline  for  Determinations  in  Quantitative 
Chemical  Analysis.  Pages  88  $0.90 

GUILD — The  Mineralogy  of  Arizona.  Small  I2tno.  Pages  104.  Il- 
lustrated   $1.00 

HANTZSCH— Elements  of  Stereochemistry.  (Translated  by  Wolf). 
I2mo.  Pages  VIII  -f-  206.  26  Figures  $1.50 

HARDY — Infinitesimals  and  Limits.  Small  I2mo.  Paper.  Pages  22. 
6  Figures  $0.20 

HART — Chemistry  for  Beginners.  Small  I2mo.  Vol.  I.  Inorganic.  Pages 
VIII  +  214.  55  Illustrations,  2  Plates  $1.00 

HART— Chemistry  for  Beginners.  Small  I2tno.  Vol.  II.  Pages  IV  -f 
98.  ii  Illustrations  ' $0.50 

HART — Chemistry  for  Beginners.  Small  I2mo.  Vol.  III.  Experiments. 
Separately.  Pages  60  $0.25 

HART — Second  Year  Chemistry.  Small  I2mo.  Pages  165.  31  Illus- 
trations   $1.25 

HART,  R.  N.— Welding.     8vo.     Pages  XVI  -f  182.     93  Illustrations. $2. 50 

HEESS — Practical  Methods  for  the  Iron  and  Steel  Works  Chemist. 
Pages  60  $1.00 

HINDS— Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.    8vo.     Pages  VIII  +  266.. $2.00 

HOWE — Inorganic  Chemistry  for  Schools  and  Colleges.  8vo.  Pages 
VIII  +  422  $3-00 


LANDOLT — The  Optical  Rotating  Power  of  Organic  Substances  and  Its 
Practical  Applications.  8vo.  Pages  XXI  +  751.  83  Illustra- 
tions   $7.50 

LEA VENWORTH— Inorganic  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.    8vo.     Pages 

VI  +  153 . $i.5o 

LE  BLANC — The  Production  of  Chromium  and  Its  Compounds  by  the  Aid 
of  the  Electric  Current.  8vo.  Pages  122  $1.25 

MASON — Notes  on  Qualitative  Analysis.    Small  I2mo.    Pages  56 $0.80 

MEADE— Portland  Cement.  2nd  Edition.  8vo.  Pages  VIII  -f  385.  100 
Illustrations  $3-50 

MEADE— Chemists'  Pocket  Manual.  I2mo.  Pages  XII  -j-  444.  39 
Illustrations $3.00 

MOISSAN— The  Electric  Furnace.  8vo.  Pages  10  -f  305.  41  Illus- 
trations   $2.50 

NIKAIDO— Beet-Sugar  Making  and  Its  Chemical  Control.  8vo.  Pages 
XII  -f  354.  65  Illustrations  , $3.00 

NISSENSON— The  Arrangement  of  Electrolytic  Laboratories.  8vo.  Pages 
81.  52  Illustrations  $1.25 

NOYES — Organic  Chemistry  for  the  Laboratory.  2d  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.  8vo.  Pages  XII  -|-  292.  41  Illustrations $2.00 

NOYES  AND  MULLIKEN— Laboratory  Experiments  on  Class  Reactions 
and  Identification  of  Organic  Substances.  8vo.  Pages  81 $0.50 

PARSONS— The  Chemistry  and  Literature  of  Beryllium.  8vo.  Pages 
VI  +  180 , $2.00 

PFANHAUSER— Production  of  Metallic  Objects  Electrolytically.  8vo. 
Pages  162.  100  Illustrations  $1.25 

PHILLIPS— Methods  for  the  Analysis  of  Ores,  Pig  Iron  and  Steel.  2nd 
Edition.  8vo.  Pages  VIII  -f-  170.  3  Illustrations  $1.00 

SEGER — Collected  Writings  of  Herman  August  Seger.  Papers  on  Manu- 
facture of  Pottery.  2  Vols.  Large  8vo $7.50  a  vol.  or  $15.00  a  set 

STILLMAN — Engineering  Chemistry.  4th  Edition.  8vo.  Pages  X  -f- 
744.  174  Illustrations $5.00 

TOWER_The  Conductivity  of  Liquids.  8vo.  Pages  82.  20  Illus- 
trations   $1.50 

VENABLE— The  Development  of  the  Periodic  Law.  Small  I2mo.  Pages 
VIII  -f  321.  Illustrated  $2.50 

VENABLE— The  Study  of  the  Atom.    I2mo.    Pages  VI  -f  290 $2.00 

VULTE  AND  GOODELL— Household  Chemistry.  2nd  Edition.  i2mo. 
Pages  VI  +  190  • $i-25 

WILEY— Principles  and  Practice  of  Agricultural  Chemical  Analysis.  Vol. 
I.  Soils.  Pages  XII  +  636.  55  Illustrations.  17  Plates $4.00 

WILEY— Principles  and  Practice  of  Agricultural  Chemical  Analysis.  Vol. 
TT  Fertilizers  and  Insecticides.  Pages  684.  40  Illustrations.  7 
Plates  • $4.50 

WYSOR— Metallurgy,  a  Condensed  Treatise  for  the  use  of  College 
Students  and  Any  Desiring  a  General  Knowledge  of  the  Subject. 
Pages  308.  88  Illustrations  $3-OQ 


50m-7,'27 


11595 


302059 


UNIVKRSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


